A-21: HUMAN SETTLEMENT
Distr.
GENERAL
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I)
12 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
Chapter 7
PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE HUMAN SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
7.1. In industrialized countries, the consumption patterns of cities are
severely stressing the global ecosystem, while settlements in the
developing world need more raw material, energy, and economic development
simply to overcome basic economic and social problems. Human settlement
conditions in many parts of the world, particularly the developing
countries, are deteriorating mainly as a result of the low levels of
investment in the sector attributable to the overall resource constraints
in these countries. In the low-income countries for which recent data are
available, an average of only 5.6 per cent of central government
expenditure went to housing, amenities, social security and welfare. 1/
Expenditure by international support and finance organizations is equally
low. For example, only 1 per cent of the United Nations system's total
grant-financed expenditures in 1988 went to human settlements, 2/ while in
1991, loans from the World Bank and the International Development
Association (IDA) for urban development and water supply and sewerage
amounted to 5.5 and 5.4 per cent, respectively, of their total lending. 3/
7.2. On the other hand, available information indicates that technical
cooperation activities in the human settlement sector generate considerable
public and private sector investment. For example, every dollar of UNDP
technical cooperation expenditure on human settlements in 1988 generated a
follow-up investment of $122, the highest of all UNDP sectors of
assistance. 4/
7.3. This is the foundation of the "enabling approach" advocated for the
human settlement sector. External assistance will help to generate the
internal resources needed to improve the living and working environments of
all people by the year 2000 and beyond, including the growing number of
unemployed - the no-income group. At the same time the environmental
implications of urban development should be recognized and addressed in an
integrated fashion by all countries, with high priority being given to the
needs of the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the growing number of
people without any source of income.
Human settlement objective
7.4. The overall human settlement objective is to improve the social,
economic and environmental quality of human settlements and the living and
working environments of all people, in particular the urban and rural poor.
Such improvement should be based on technical cooperation activities,
partnerships among the public, private and community sectors and
participation in the decision-making process by community groups and
special interest groups such as women, indigenous people, the elderly and
the disabled. These approaches should form the core principles of national
settlement strategies. In developing these strategies, countries will need
to set priorities among the eight programme areas in this chapter in
accordance with their national plans and objectives, taking fully into
account their social and cultural capabilities. Furthermore, countries
should make appropriate provision to monitor the impact of their strategies
on marginalized and disenfranchised groups, with particular reference to
the needs of women.
7.5. The programme areas included in this chapter are:
(a) Providing adequate shelter for all;
(b) Improving human settlement management;
(c) Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management;
(d) Promoting the integrated provision of environmental
infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and solid-waste management;
(e) Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in human
settlements;
(f) Promoting human settlement planning and management in
disaster-prone areas;
(g) Promoting sustainable construction industry activities;
(h) Promoting human resource development and capacity-building for
human settlement development.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Providing adequate shelter for all
Basis for action
7.6. Access to safe and healthy shelter is essential to a person's
physical, psychological, social and economic well-being and should be a
fundamental part of national and international action. The right to
adequate housing as a basic human right is enshrined in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights. Despite this, it is estimated that at the
present time, at least 1 billion people do not have access to safe and
healthy shelter and that if appropriate action is not taken, this number
will increase dramatically by the end of the century and beyond.
7.7. A major global programme to address this problem is the Global
Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000, adopted by the General Assembly in
December 1988 (resolution 43/181, annex). Despite its widespread
endorsement, the Strategy needs a much greater level of political and
financial support to enable it to reach its goal of facilitating adequate
shelter for all by the end of the century and beyond.
Objective
7.8. The objective is to achieve adequate shelter for rapidly growing
populations and for the currently deprived urban and rural poor through an
enabling approach to shelter development and improvement that is
environmentally sound.
Activities
7.9. The following activities should be undertaken:
(a) As a first step towards the goal of providing adequate shelter for
all, all countries should take immediate measures to provide shelter to
their homeless poor, while the international community and financial
institutions should undertake actions to support the efforts of the
developing countries to provide shelter to the poor;
(b) All countries should adopt and/or strengthen national shelter
strategies, with targets based, as appropriate, on the principles and
recommendations contained in the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year
2000. People should be protected by law against unfair eviction from
their homes or land;
(c) All countries should, as appropriate, support the shelter efforts
of the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the no-income group by
adopting and/or adapting existing codes and regulations, to facilitate
their access to land, finance and low-cost building materials and by
actively promoting the regularization and upgrading of informal settlements
and urban slums as an expedient measure and pragmatic solution to the urban
shelter deficit;
(d) All countries should, as appropriate, facilitate access of urban
and rural poor to shelter by adopting and utilizing housing and finance
schemes and new innovative mechanisms adapted to their circumstances;
(e) All countries should support and develop environmentally
compatible shelter strategies at national, state/provincial and municipal
levels through partnerships among the private, public and community sectors
and with the support of community-based organizations;
(f) All countries, especially developing ones, should, as appropriate,
formulate and implement programmes to reduce the impact of the phenomenon
of rural to urban drift by improving rural living conditions;
(g) All countries, where appropriate, should develop and implement
resettlement programmes that address the specific problems of displaced
populations in their respective countries;
(h) All countries should, as appropriate, document and monitor the
implementation of their national shelter strategies by using, inter alia,
the monitoring guidelines adopted by the Commission on Human Settlements
and the shelter performance indicators being produced jointly by the United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and the World Bank;
(i) Bilateral and multilateral cooperation should be strengthened in
order to support the implementation of the national shelter strategies of
developing countries;
(j) Global progress reports covering national action and the support
activities of international organizations and bilateral donors should be
produced and disseminated on a biennial basis, as requested in the Global
Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.10. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $75 billion, including about $10 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.11. The requirements under this heading are addressed in each of the
other programme areas included in the present chapter.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.12. Developed countries and funding agencies should provide specific
assistance to developing countries in adopting an enabling approach to the
provision of shelter for all, including the no-income group, and covering
research institutions and training activities for government officials,
professionals, communities and non-governmental organizations and by
strengthening local capacity for the development of appropriate
technologies.
B. Improving human settlement management
Basis for action
7.13. By the turn of the century, the majority of the world's population
will be living in cities. While urban settlements, particularly in
developing countries, are showing many of the symptoms of the global
environment and development crisis, they nevertheless generate 60 per cent
of gross national product and, if properly managed, can develop the
capacity to sustain their productivity, improve the living conditions of
their residents and manage natural resources in a sustainable way.
7.14. Some metropolitan areas extend over the boundaries of several
political and/or administrative entities (counties and municipalities) even
though they conform to a continuous urban system. In many cases this
political heterogeneity hinders the implementation of comprehensive
environmental management programmes.
Objective
7.15. The objective is to ensure sustainable management of all urban
settlements, particularly in developing countries, in order to enhance
their ability to improve the living conditions of residents, especially the
marginalized and disenfranchised, thereby contributing to the achievement
of national economic development goals.
Activities
(a) Improving urban management
7.16. One existing framework for strengthening management is in the United
Nations Development Programme/World Bank/United Nations Centre for Human
Settlements (Habitat) Urban Management Programme (UMP), a concerted global
effort to assist developing countries in addressing urban management
issues. Its coverage should be extended to all interested countries during
the period 1993-2000. All countries should, as appropriate and in
accordance with national plans, objectives and priorities and with the
assistance of non-governmental organizations and representatives of local
authorities, undertake the following activities at the national,
state/provincial and local levels, with the assistance of relevant
programmes and support agencies:
(a) Adopting and applying urban management guidelines in the areas of
land management, urban environmental management, infrastructure management
and municipal finance and administration;
(b) Accelerating efforts to reduce urban poverty through a number of
actions, including:
(i) Generating employment for the urban poor, particularly women,
through the provision, improvement and maintenance of urban
infrastructure and services and the support of economic activities
in the informal sector, such as repairs, recycling, services and
small commerce;
(ii) Providing specific assistance to the poorest of the urban poor
through, inter alia, the creation of social infrastructure in
order to reduce hunger and homelessness, and the provision of
adequate community services;
(iii) Encouraging the establishment of indigenous community-based
organizations, private voluntary organizations and other forms of
non-governmental entities that can contribute to the efforts to
reduce poverty and improve the quality of life for low-income
families;
(c) Adopting innovative city planning strategies to address
environmental and social issues by:
(i) Reducing subsidies on, and recovering the full costs of,
environmental and other services of high standard (e.g. water
supply, sanitation, waste collection, roads, telecommunications)
provided to higher income neighbourhoods;
(ii) Improving the level of infrastructure and service provision in
poorer urban areas;
(d) Developing local strategies for improving the quality of life and
the environment, integrating decisions on land use and land management,
investing in the public and private sectors and mobilizing human and
material resources, thereby promoting employment generation that is
environmentally sound and protective of human health.
(b) Strengthening urban data systems
7.17. During the period 1993-2000 all countries should undertake, with the
active participation of the business sector as appropriate, pilot projects
in selected cities for the collection, analysis and subsequent
dissemination of urban data, including environmental impact analysis, at
the local, state/provincial, national and international levels and the
establishment of city data management capabilities. 5/ United Nations
organizations, such as Habitat, UNEP and UNDP, could provide technical
advice and model data management systems.
(c) Encouraging intermediate city development
7.18. In order to relieve pressure on large urban agglomerations of
developing countries, policies and strategies should be implemented towards
the development of intermediate cities that create employment opportunities
for unemployed labour in the rural areas and support rural-based economic
activities, although sound urban management is essential to ensure that
urban sprawl does not expand resource degradation over an ever wider land
area and increase pressures to convert open space and agricultural/buffer
lands for development.
7.19. Therefore all countries should, as appropriate, conduct reviews of
urbanization processes and policies in order to assess the environmental
impacts of growth and apply urban planning and management approaches
specifically suited to the needs, resource capabilities and characteristics
of their growing intermediate-sized cities. As appropriate, they should
also concentrate on activities aimed at facilitating the transition from
rural to urban lifestyles and settlement patterns and at promoting the
development of small-scale economic activities, particularly the production
of food, to support local income generation and the production of
intermediate goods and services for rural hinterlands.
7.20. All cities, particularly those characterized by severe sustainable
development problems, should, in accordance with national laws, rules and
regulations, develop and strengthen programmes aimed at addressing such
problems and guiding their development along a sustainable path. Some
international initiatives in support of such efforts, as in the Sustainable
Cities Programme of Habitat and the Healthy Cities Programme of WHO, should
be intensified. Additional initiatives involving the World Bank, the
regional development banks and bilateral agencies, as well as other
interested stakeholders, particularly international and national
representatives of local authorities, should be strengthened and
coordinated. Individual cities should, as appropriate:
(a) Institutionalize a participatory approach to sustainable urban
development, based on a continuous dialogue between the actors involved in
urban development (the public sector, private sector and communities),
especially women and indigenous people;
(b) Improve the urban environment by promoting social organization and
environmental awareness through the participation of local communities in
the identification of public services needs, the provision of urban
infrastructure, the enhancement of public amenities and the protection
and/or rehabilitation of older buildings, historic precincts and other
cultural artifacts. In addition, "green works" programmes should be
activated to create self-sustaining human development activities and both
formal and informal employment opportunities for low-income urban
residents;
(c) Strengthen the capacities of their local governing bodies to deal
more effectively with the broad range of developmental and environmental
challenges associated with rapid and sound urban growth through
comprehensive approaches to planning that recognize the individual needs of
cities and are based on ecologically sound urban design practices;
(d) Participate in international "sustainable city networks" to
exchange experiences and mobilize national and international technical and
financial support;
(e) Promote the formulation of environmentally sound and culturally
sensitive tourism programmes as a strategy for sustainable development of
urban and rural settlements and as a way of decentralizing urban
development and reducing discrepancies among regions;
(f) Establish mechanisms, with the assistance of relevant
international agencies, to mobilize resources for local initiatives to
improve environmental quality;
(g) Empower community groups, non-governmental organizations and
individuals to assume the authority and responsibility for managing and
enhancing their immediate environment through participatory tools,
techniques and approaches embodied in the concept of environmental care.
7.21. Cities of all countries should reinforce cooperation among
themselves and cities of the developed countries, under the aegis of
non-governmental organizations active in this field, such as the
International Union of Local Authorities (IULA), the International Council
for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) and the World Federation of
Twin Cities.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.22. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $100 billion, including about $15 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.23. Developing countries should, with appropriate international
assistance, consider focusing on training and developing a cadre of urban
managers, technicians, administrators and other relevant stakeholders who
can successfully manage environmentally sound urban development and growth
and are equipped with the skills necessary to analyse and adapt the
innovative experiences of other cities. For this purpose, the full range
of training methods - from formal education to the use of the mass media -
should be utilized, as well as the "learning by doing" option.
7.24. Developing countries should also encourage technological training
and research through joint efforts by donors, non-governmental
organizations and private business in such areas as the reduction of waste,
water quality, saving of energy, safe production of chemicals and less
polluting transportation.
7.25. Capacity-building activities carried out by all countries, assisted
as suggested above, should go beyond the training of individuals and
functional groups to include institutional arrangements, administrative
routines, inter-agency linkages, information flows and consultative
processes.
7.26. In addition, international efforts, such as the Urban Management
Programme, in cooperation with multilateral and bilateral agencies, should
continue to assist the developing countries in their efforts to develop a
participatory structure by mobilizing the human resources of the private
sector, non-governmental organizations and the poor, particularly women and
the disadvantaged.
C. Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management
Basis for action
7.27. Access to land resources is an essential component of sustainable
low-impact lifestyles. Land resources are the basis for (human) living
systems and provide soil, energy, water and the opportunity for all human
activity. In rapidly growing urban areas, access to land is rendered
increasingly difficult by the conflicting demands of industry, housing,
commerce, agriculture, land tenure structures and the need for open spaces.
Furthermore, the rising costs of urban land prevent the poor from gaining
access to suitable land. In rural areas, unsustainable practices, such as
the exploitation of marginal lands and the encroachment on forests and
ecologically fragile areas by commercial interests and landless rural
populations, result in environmental degradation, as well as in diminishing
returns for impoverished rural settlers.
Objective
7.28. The objective is to provide for the land requirements of human
settlement development through environmentally sound physical planning and
land use so as to ensure access to land to all households and, where
appropriate, the encouragement of communally and collectively owned and
managed land. 6/ Particular attention should be paid to the needs of women
and indigenous people for economic and cultural reasons.
Activities
7.29. All countries should consider, as appropriate, undertaking a
comprehensive national inventory of their land resources in order to
establish a land information system in which land resources will be
classified according to their most appropriate uses and environmentally
fragile or disaster-prone areas will be identified for special protection
measures.
7.30. Subsequently, all countries should consider developing national
land-resource management plans to guide land-resource development and
utilization and, to that end, should:
(a) Establish, as appropriate, national legislation to guide the
implementation of public policies for environmentally sound urban
development, land utilization, housing and for the improved management of
urban expansion;
(b) Create, where appropriate, efficient and accessible land markets
that meet community development needs by, inter alia, improving land
registry systems and streamlining procedures in land transactions;
(c) Develop fiscal incentives and land-use control measures, including
land-use planning solutions for a more rational and environmentally sound
use of limited land resources;
(d) Encourage partnerships among the public, private and
community sectors in managing land resources for human settlements
development;
(e) Strengthen community-based land-resource protection practices in
existing urban and rural settlements;
(f) Establish appropriate forms of land tenure that provide security
of tenure for all land-users, especially indigenous people, women, local
communities, the low-income urban dwellers and the rural poor;
(g) Accelerate efforts to promote access to land by the urban and
rural poor, including credit schemes for the purchase of land and for
building/acquiring or improving safe and healthy shelter and infrastructure
services;
(h) Develop and support the implementation of improved land-management
practices that deal comprehensively with potentially competing land
requirements for agriculture, industry, transport, urban development, green
spaces, preserves and other vital needs;
(i) Promote understanding among policy makers of the adverse
consequences of unplanned settlements in environmentally vulnerable areas
and of the appropriate national and local land-use and settlements policies
required for this purpose.
7.31. At the international level, global coordination of land-resource
management activities should be strengthened by the various bilateral and
multilateral agencies and programmes, such as UNDP, FAO, the World Bank,
the regional development banks, other interested organizations and the
UNDP/World Bank/Habitat Urban Management Programme, and action should be
taken to promote the transfer of applicable experience on sustainable
land-management practices to and among developing countries.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $3 billion, including about $300 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.33. All countries, particularly developing countries, alone or in
regional or subregional groupings, should be given access to modern
techniques of land-resource management, such as geographical information
systems, satellite photography/imagery and other remote-sensing
technologies.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.34. Environmentally focused training activities in sustainable
land-resources planning and management should be undertaken in all
countries, with developing countries being given assistance through
international support and funding agencies in order to:
(a) Strengthen the capacity of national, state/provincial and local
educational research and training institutions to provide formal training
of land-management technicians and professionals;
(b) Facilitate the organizational review of government ministries and
agencies responsible for land questions, in order to devise more efficient
mechanisms of land-resource management, and carry out periodic in-service
refresher courses for the managers and staff of such ministries and
agencies in order to familiarize them with up-to-date
land-resource-management technologies;
(c) Where appropriate, provide such agencies with modern equipment,
such as computer hardware and software and survey equipment;
(d) Strengthen existing programmes and promote an international and
interregional exchange of information and experience in land management
through the establishment of professional associations in land-management
sciences and related activities, such as workshops and seminars.
D. Promoting the integrated provision of environmental
infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and
solid-waste management
Basis for action
7.35. The sustainability of urban development is defined by many
parameters relating to the availability of water supplies, air quality and
the provision of environmental infrastructure for sanitation and waste
management. As a result of the density of users, urbanization, if properly
managed, offers unique opportunities for the supply of sustainable
environmental infrastructure through adequate pricing policies, educational
programmes and equitable access mechanisms that are economically and
environmentally sound. In most developing countries, however, the
inadequacy and lack of environmental infrastructure is responsible for
widespread ill-health and a large number of preventable deaths each year.
In those countries conditions are set to worsen due to growing needs that
exceed the capacity of Governments to respond adequately.
7.36. An integrated approach to the provision of environmentally sound
infrastructure in human settlements, in particular for the urban and rural
poor, is an investment in sustainable development that can improve the
quality of life, increase productivity, improve health and reduce the
burden of investments in curative medicine and poverty alleviation.
7.37. Most of the activities whose management would be improved by an
integrated approach, are covered in Agenda 21 as follows: chapter 6
(Protecting and promoting human health conditions), chapters 9 (Protecting
the atmosphere), 18 (Protecting the quality and supply of freshwater
resources) and 21 (Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and
sewage-related issues).
Objective
7.38. The objective is to ensure the provision of adequate environmental
infrastructure facilities in all settlements by the year 2025. The
achievement of this objective would require that all developing countries
incorporate in their national strategies programmes to build the necessary
technical, financial and human resource capacity aimed at ensuring better
integration of infrastructure and environmental planning by the year 2000.
Activities
7.39. All countries should assess the environmental suitability of
infrastructure in human settlements, develop national goals for sustainable
management of waste, and implement environmentally sound technology to
ensure that the environment, human health and quality of life are
protected. Settlement infrastructure and environmental programmes designed
to promote an integrated human settlements approach to the planning,
development, maintenance and management of environmental infrastructure
(water supply, sanitation, drainage, solid-waste management) should be
strengthened with the assistance of bilateral and multilateral agencies.
Coordination among these agencies and with collaboration from international
and national representatives of local authorities, the private sector and
community groups should also be strengthened. The activities of all
agencies engaged in providing environmental infrastructure should, where
possible, reflect an ecosystem or metropolitan area approach to settlements
and should include monitoring, applied research, capacity-building,
transfer of appropriate technology and technical cooperation among the
range of programme activities.
7.40. Developing countries should be assisted at the national and local
levels in adopting an integrated approach to the provision of water supply,
energy, sanitation, drainage and solid-waste management, and external
funding agencies should ensure that this approach is applied in particular
to environmental infrastructure improvement in informal settlements based
on regulations and standards that take into account the living conditions
and resources of the communities to be served.
7.41. All countries should, as appropriate, adopt the following principles
for the provision of environmental infrastructure:
(a) Adopt policies that minimize if not altogether avoid environmental
damage, whenever possible;
(b) Ensure that relevant decisions are preceded by environmental
impact assessments and also take into account the costs of any ecological
consequences;
(c) Promote development in accordance with indigenous practices and
adopt technologies appropriate to local conditions;
(d) Promote policies aimed at recovering the actual cost of
infrastructure services, while at the same time recognizing the need to
find suitable approaches (including subsidies) to extend basic services to
all households;
(e) Seek joint solutions to environmental problems that affect several
localities.
7.42. The dissemination of information from existing programmes should be
facilitated and encouraged among interested countries and local
institutions.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.43. The Conference secretariat has estimated most of the costs of
implementing the activities of this programme in other chapters. The
secretariat estimates the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of
technical assistance from the international community grant or concessional
terms to be about $50 million. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon
for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.44. Scientific and technological means within the existing programmes
should be coordinated wherever possible and should:
(a) Accelerate research in the area of integrated policies of
environmental infrastructure programmes and projects based on cost/benefit
analysis and overall environmental impact;
(b) Promote methods of assessing "effective demand", utilizing
environment and development data as criteria for selecting technology.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.45. With the assistance and support of funding agencies, all countries
should, as appropriate, undertake training and popular participation
programmes aimed at:
(a) Raising awareness of the means, approaches and benefits of the
provision of environmental infrastructure facilities, especially among
indigenous people, women, low-income groups and the poor;
(b) Developing a cadre of professionals with adequate skills in
integrated infrastructural service planning and maintenance of
resource-efficient, environmentally sound and socially acceptable systems;
(c) Strengthening the institutional capacity of local authorities and
administrators in the integrated provision of adequate infrastructure
services in partnership with local communities and the private sector;
(d) Adopting appropriate legal and regulatory instruments, including
cross-subsidy arrangements, to extend the benefits of adequate and
affordable environmental infrastructure to unserved population groups,
especially the poor.
E. Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in
human settlements
Basis for action
7.46. Most of the commercial and non-commercial energy produced today is
used in and for human settlements, and a substantial percentage of it is
used by the household sector. Developing countries are at present faced
with the need to increase their energy production to accelerate development
and raise the living standards of their populations, while at the same time
reducing energy production costs and energy-related pollution. Increasing
the efficiency of energy use to reduce its polluting effects and to promote
the use of renewable energies must be a priority in any action taken to
protect the urban environment.
7.47. Developed countries, as the largest consumers of energy, are faced
with the need for energy planning and management, promoting renewable and
alternate sources of energy, and evaluating the life-cycle costs of current
systems and practices as a result of which many metropolitan areas are
suffering from pervasive air quality problems related to ozone, particulate
matters and carbon monoxide. The causes have much to do with technological
inadequacies and with an increasing fuel consumption generated by
inefficiencies, high demographic and industrial concentrations and a rapid
expansion in the number of motor vehicles.
7.48. Transport accounts for about 30 per cent of commercial energy
consumption and for about 60 per cent of total global consumption of liquid
petroleum. In developing countries, rapid motorization and insufficient
investments in urban-transport planning, traffic management and
infrastructure, are creating increasing problems in terms of accidents and
injury, health, noise, congestion and loss of productivity similar to those
occurring in many developed countries. All of these problems have a severe
impact on urban populations, particularly the low-income and no-income
groups.
Objectives
7.49. The objectives are to extend the provision of more energy-efficient
technology and alternative/renewable energy for human settlements and to
reduce negative impacts of energy production and use on human health and on
the environment.
Activities
7.50. The principal activities relevant to this programme area are
included in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere), programme area B,
subprogramme 1 (Energy development, efficiency and consumption) and
subprogramme 2 (Transportation).
7.51. A comprehensive approach to human settlements development should
include the promotion of sustainable energy development in all countries,
as follows:
(a) Developing countries, in particular, should:
(i) Formulate national action programmes to promote and support
reafforestation and national forest regeneration with a view to
achieving sustained provision of the biomass energy needs of the
low-income groups in urban areas and the rural poor, in particular
women and children;
(ii) Formulate national action programmes to promote integrated
development of energy-saving and renewable energy technologies,
particularly for the use of solar, hydro, wind and biomass
sources;
(iii) Promote wide dissemination and commercialization of renewable
energy technologies through suitable measures, inter alia, fiscal
and technology transfer mechanisms;
(iv) Carry out information and training programmes directed at
manufacturers and users in order to promote energy-saving
techniques and energy-efficient appliances;
(b) International organizations and bilateral donors should:
(i) Support developing countries in implementing national energy
programmes in order to achieve widespread use of energy-saving and
renewable energy technologies, particularly the use of solar,
wind, biomass and hydro sources;
(ii) Provide access to research and development results to increase
energy-use efficiency levels in human settlements.
7.52. Promoting efficient and environmentally sound urban transport
systems in all countries should be a comprehensive approach to
urban-transport planning and management. To this end, all countries
should:
(a) Integrate land-use and transportation planning to encourage
development patterns that reduce transport demand;
(b) Adopt urban-transport programmes favouring high-occupancy public
transport in countries, as appropriate;
(c) Encourage non-motorized modes of transport by providing safe
cycleways and footways in urban and suburban centres in countries, as
appropriate;
(d) Devote particular attention to effective traffic management,
efficient operation of public transport and maintenance of transport
infrastructure;
(e) Promote the exchange of information among countries and
representatives of local and metropolitan areas;
(f) Re-evaluate the present consumption and production patterns in
order to reduce the use of energy and national resources.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.53. The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs of implementing
the activities of this programme in chapter 9 (Protection of the
atmosphere).
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.54. In order to enhance the skills of energy service and transport
professionals and institutions, all countries should, as appropriate:
(a) Provide on-the-job and other training of government officials,
planners, traffic engineers and managers involved in the energy-service and
transport section;
(b) Raise public awareness of the environmental impacts of transport
and travel behaviour through mass media campaigns and support for
non-governmental and community initiatives promoting the use of
non-motorized transport, shared driving and improved traffic safety
measures;
(c) Strengthen regional, national, state/provincial, and private
sector institutions that provide education and training on energy service
and urban transport planning and management.
F. Promoting human settlement planning and management in
disaster-prone areas
Basis for action
7.55. Natural disasters cause loss of life, disruption of economic
activities and urban productivity, particularly for highly susceptible
low-income groups, and environmental damage, such as loss of fertile
agricultural land and contamination of water resources, and can lead to
major resettlement of populations. Over the past two decades, they are
estimated to have caused some 3 million deaths and affected 800 million
people. Global economic losses have been estimated by the Office of the
United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator to be in the range of $30-50
billion per year.
7.56. The General Assembly, in resolution 44/236, proclaimed the 1990s as
the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The goals of the
Decade 7/ bear relevance to the objectives of the present programme area.
7.57. In addition, there is an urgent need to address the prevention and
reduction of man-made disasters and/or disasters caused by, inter alia,
industries, unsafe nuclear power generation and toxic wastes (see chapter
6 of Agenda 21).
Objective
7.58. The objective is to enable all countries, in particular those that
are disaster-prone, to mitigate the negative impact of natural and man-made
disasters on human settlements, national economies and the environment.
Activities
7.59. Three distinct areas of activity are foreseen under this programme
area, namely, the development of a "culture of safety", pre-disaster
planning and post-disaster reconstruction.
(a) Developing a culture of safety
7.60. To promote a "culture of safety" in all countries, especially those
that are disaster-prone, the following activities should be carried out:
(a) Completing national and local studies on the nature and occurrence
of natural disasters, their impact on people and economic activities, the
effects of inadequate construction and land use in hazard-prone areas, and
the social and economic advantages of adequate pre-disaster planning;
(b) Implementing nationwide and local awareness campaigns through all
available media, translating the above knowledge into information easily
comprehensible to the general public and to the populations directly
exposed to hazards;
(c) Strengthening, and/or developing global, regional, national and
local early warning systems to alert populations to impending disasters;
(d) Identifying industrially based environmental disaster areas at the
national and international levels and implementing strategies aimed at the
rehabilitation of these areas through, inter alia:
(i) Restructuring of the economic activities and promoting new job
opportunities in environmentally sound sectors;
(ii) Promoting close collaboration between governmental and local
authorities, local communities and non-governmental organizations
and private business;
(iii) Developing and enforcing strict environmental control standards.
(b) Developing pre-disaster planning
7.61. Pre-disaster planning should form an integral part of human
settlement planning in all countries. The following should be included:
(a) Undertaking complete multi-hazard research into risk and
vulnerability of human settlements and settlement infrastructure, including
water and sewerage, communication and transportation networks, as one type
of risk reduction may increase vulnerability to another (e.g., an
earthquake-resistant house made of wood will be more vulnerable to wind
storms);
(b) Developing methodologies for determining risk and vulnerability
within specific human settlements and incorporating risk and vulnerability
reduction into the human settlement planning and management process;
(c) Redirecting inappropriate new development and human settlements to
areas not prone to hazards;
(d) Preparing guidelines on location, design and operation of
potentially hazardous industries and activities;
(e) Developing tools (legal, economic etc.) to encourage
disaster-sensitive development, including means of ensuring that
limitations on development options are not punitive to owners, or
incorporate alternative means of compensation;
(f) Further developing and disseminating information on
disaster-resistant building materials and construction technologies for
buildings and public works in general;
(g) Developing training programmes for contractors and builders on
disaster-resistant construction methods. Some programmes should be
directed particularly to small enterprises, which build the great majority
of housing and other small buildings in the developing countries, as well
as to the rural populations, which build their own houses;
(h) Developing training programmes for emergency site managers,
non-governmental organizations and community groups which cover all aspects
of disaster mitigation, including urban search and rescue, emergency
communications, early warning techniques, and pre-disaster planning;
(i) Developing procedures and practices to enable local communities to
receive information about hazardous installations or situations in these
areas, and facilitate their participation in early warning and disaster
abatement and response procedures and plans;
(j) Preparing action plans for the reconstruction of settlements,
especially the reconstruction of community life-lines.
(c) Initiating post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation planning
7.62. The international community, as a major partner in
post-reconstruction and rehabilitation, should ensure that the countries
involved derive the greatest benefits from the funds allocated by
undertaking the following activities:
(a) Carrying out research on past experiences on the social and
economic aspects of post-disaster reconstruction and adopting effective
strategies and guidelines for post-disaster reconstruction, with particular
focus on development-focused strategies in the allocation of scarce
reconstruction resources, and on the opportunities that post-disaster
reconstruction provides to introduce sustainable settlement patterns;
(b) Preparing and disseminating international guidelines for adaptation
to national and local needs;
(c) Supporting efforts of national Governments to initiate contingency
planning, with participation of affected communities, for post-disaster
reconstruction and rehabilitation.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.63. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.64. Scientists and engineers specializing in this field in both
developing and developed countries should collaborate with urban and
regional planners in order to provide the basic knowledge and means to
mitigate losses owing to disasters as well as environmentally inappropriate
development.
(c) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.65. Developing countries should conduct training programmes on
disaster-resistant construction methods for contractors and builders, who
build the majority of housing in the developing countries. This should
focus on the small business enterprises, which build the majority of
housing in the developing countries.
7.66. Training programmes should be extended to government officials and
planners and community and non-governmental organizations to cover all
aspects of disaster mitigation, such as early warning techniques,
pre-disaster planning and construction, post-disaster construction and
rehabilitation.
G. Promoting sustainable construction industry activities
Basis for action
7.67. The activities of the construction sector are vital to the
achievement of the national socio-economic development goals of providing
shelter, infrastructure and employment. However, they can be a major
source of environmental damage through depletion of the natural resource
base, degradation of fragile eco-zones, chemical pollution and the use of
building materials harmful to human health.
Objectives
7.68. The objectives are, first, to adopt policies and technologies and to
exchange information on them in order to enable the construction sector to
meet human settlement development goals, while avoiding harmful
side-effects on human health and on the biosphere, and, second, to enhance
the employment-generation capacity of the construction sector. Governments
should work in close collaboration with the private sector in achieving
these objectives.
Activities
7.69. All countries should, as appropriate and in accordance with national
plans, objectives and priorities:
(a) Establish and strengthen indigenous building materials industry,
based, as much as possible, on inputs of locally available natural
resources;
(b) Formulate programmes to enhance the utilization of local materials
by the construction sector by expanding technical support and incentive
schemes for increasing the capabilities and economic viability of
small-scale and informal operatives which make use of these materials and
traditional construction techniques;
(c) Adopt standards and other regulatory measures which promote the
increased use of energy-efficient designs and technologies and sustainable
utilization of natural resources in an economically and environmentally
appropriate way;
(d) Formulate appropriate land-use policies and introduce planning
regulations specially aimed at the protection of eco-sensitive zones
against physical disruption by construction and construction-related
activities;
(e) Promote the use of labour-intensive construction and maintenance
technologies which generate employment in the construction sector for the
underemployed labour force found in most large cities, while at the same
time promoting the development of skills in the construction sector;
(f) Develop policies and practices to reach the informal sector and
self-help housing builders by adopting measures to increase the
affordability of building materials on the part of the urban and rural
poor, through, inter alia, credit schemes and bulk procurement of building
materials for sale to small-scale builders and communities.
7.70. All countries should:
(a) Promote the free exchange of information on the entire range of
environmental and health aspects of construction, including the development
and dissemination of databases on the adverse environmental effects of
building materials through the collaborative efforts of the private and
public sectors;
(b) Promote the development and dissemination of databases on the
adverse environmental and health effects of building materials and
introduce legislation and financial incentives to promote recycling of
energy-intensive materials in the construction industry and conservation of
waste energy in building-materials production methods;
(c) Promote the use of economic instruments, such as product charges,
to discourage the use of construction materials and products that create
pollution during their life cycle;
(d) Promote information exchange and appropriate technology transfer
among all countries, with particular attention to developing countries, for
resource management in construction, particularly for non-renewable
resources;
(e) Promote research in construction industries and related
activities, and establish and strengthen institutions in this sector.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.71. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $40 billion, including about $4 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Human resource development and capacity-building
7.72. Developing countries should be assisted by international support and
funding agencies in upgrading the technical and managerial capacities of
the small entrepreneur and the vocational skills of operatives and
supervisors in the building materials industry, using a variety of training
methods. These countries should also be assisted in developing programmes
to encourage the use of non-waste and clean technologies through
appropriate transfer of technology.
7.73. General education programmes should be developed in all countries,
as appropriate, to increase builder awareness of available sustainable
technologies.
7.74. Local authorities are called upon to play a pioneering role in
promoting the increased use of environmentally sound building materials and
construction technologies, e.g., by pursuing an innovative procurement
policy.
H. Promoting human resource development and capacity-building
for human settlements development
Basis for action
7.75. Most countries, in addition to shortcomings in the availability of
specialized expertise in the areas of housing, settlement management, land
management, infrastructure, construction, energy, transport, and
pre-disaster planning and reconstruction, face three cross-sectoral human
resource development and capacity-building shortfalls. First is the
absence of an enabling policy environment capable of integrating the
resources and activities of the public sector, the private sector and the
community, or social sector; second is the weakness of specialized training
and research institutions; and third is the insufficient capacity for
technical training and assistance for low-income communities, both urban
and rural.
Objective
7.76. The objective is to improve human resource development and
capacity-building in all countries by enhancing the personal and
institutional capacity of all actors, particularly indigenous people and
women, involved in human settlement development. In this regard, account
should be taken of traditional cultural practices of indigenous people and
their relationship to the environment.
Activities
7.77. Specific human resource development and capacity-building activities
have been built into each of the programme areas of this chapter. More
generally, however, additional steps should be taken to reinforce those
activities. In order to do so, all countries, as appropriate, should take
the following action:
(a) Strengthening the development of human resources and of capacities
of public sector institutions through technical assistance and
international cooperation so as to achieve by the year 2000 substantial
improvement in the efficiency of governmental activities;
(b) Creating an enabling policy environment supportive of the
partnership between the public, private and community sectors;
(c) Providing enhanced training and technical assistance to
institutions providing training for technicians, professionals and
administrators, and appointed, elected and professional members of local
governments and strengthening their capacity to address priority training
needs, particularly in regard to social, economic and environmental aspects
of human settlements development;
(d) Providing direct assistance for human settlement development at
the community level, inter alia, by:
(i) Strengthening and promoting programmes for social mobilization and
raising awareness of the potential of women and youth in human
settlements activities;
(ii) Facilitating coordination of the activities of women, youth,
community groups and non-governmental organizations in human
settlements development;
(iii) Promoting research on women's programmes and other groups, and
evaluating progress made with a view to identifying bottlenecks
and needed assistance;
(e) Promoting the inclusion of integrated environmental management
into general local government activities.
7.78. Both international organizations and non-governmental organizations
should support the above activities by, inter alia, strengthening
subregional training institutions, providing updated training materials and
disseminating the results of successful human resource and
capacity-building activities, programmes and projects.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
7.79. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $65 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
7.80. Both formal training and non-formal types of human resource
development and capacity-building programmes should be combined, and use
should be made of user-oriented training methods, up-to-date training
materials and modern audio-visual communication systems.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Notes
1/ No aggregate figures are available on internal expenditure or
official development assistance on human settlements. However, data
available in the World Development Report, 1991, for 16 low-income
developing countries show that the percentage of central government
expenditure on housing, amenities and social security and welfare for 1989
averaged 5.6 per cent, with a high of 15.1 per cent in the case of Sri
Lanka, which has embarked on a vigorous housing programme. In OECD
industrialized countries, during the same year, the percentage of central
government expenditure on housing, amenities and social security and
welfare ranged from a minimum of 29.3 per cent to a maximum of 49.4 per
cent, with an average of 39 per cent (World Bank, World Development Report,
1991, World Development Indicators, table 11 (Washington, D.C., 1991)).
2/ See the report of the Director-General for Development and
International Economic Cooperation containing preliminary statistical data
on operational activities of the United Nations system for 1988
(A/44/324-E/1989/106/Add.4, annex).
3/ World Bank, Annual Report, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991).
4/ UNDP, "Reported investment commitments related to UNDP-assisted
projects, 1988", table 1, "Sectoral distribution of investment commitment
in 1988-1989".
5/ A pilot programme of this type, the City Data Programme (CDP), is
already in operation in the United Nations Centre on Human Settlements
(Habitat) aimed at the production and dissemination to participating cities
of microcomputer application software designed to store, process and
retrieve city data for local, national and international exchange and
dissemination.
6/ This calls for integrated land-resource management policies, which
are also addressed in chapter 10 of Agenda 21 (Integrated approach to
planning and management of land resources).
7/ The goals of the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction, set out in the annex to General Assembly resolution 44/236, are
as follows:
(a) To improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of
natural disasters expeditiously and effectively, paying special attention
to assisting developing countries in the assessment of disaster damage
potential and in the establishment of early warning systems and
disaster-resistant structures when and where needed;
(b) To devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying
existing scientific and technical knowledge, taking into account the
cultural and economic diversity among nations;
(c) To foster scientific and engineering endeavours aimed at closing
critical gaps in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life and property;
(d) To disseminate existing and new technical information related to
measures for the assessment, prediction and mitigation of natural
disasters;
(e) To develop measures for the assessment, prediction, prevention and
mitigation of natural disasters through programmes of technical assistance
and technology transfer, demonstration projects, and education and
training, tailored to specific disasters and locations, and to evaluate the
effectiveness of those programmes.
END OF CHAPTER 7
.
=========================================RRojas Research Unit/1996
