A21-PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS
Distr.
GENERAL
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II)
13 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
Chapter 17
PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS, ALL KINDS OF SEAS, INCLUDING
ENCLOSED AND SEMI-ENCLOSED SEAS, AND COASTAL AREAS AND
THE PROTECTION, RATIONAL USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR
LIVING RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
17.1. The marine environment-including the oceans and all seas and adjacent
coastal areas - forms an integrated whole that is an essential component of
the global life-support system and a positive asset that presents
opportunities for sustainable development. International law, as reflected
in the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea 1/, 2/ referred to in this chapter of Agenda 21, sets forth rights and
obligations of States and provides the international basis upon which to
pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marine and coastal
environment and its resources. This requires new approaches to marine and
coastal area management and development, at the national, subregional,
regional and global levels, approaches that are integrated in content and
are precautionary and anticipatory in ambit, as reflected in the following
programme areas: 3/
(a) Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal
areas, including exclusive economic zones;
(b) Marine environmental protection;
(c) Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources of the
high seas;
(d) Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources under
national jurisdiction;
(e) Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the marine
environment and climate change;
(f) Strengthening international, including regional, cooperation and
coordination;
(g) Sustainable development of small islands.
17.2. The implementation by developing countries of the activities set
forth below shall be commensurate with their individual technological and
financial capacities and priorities in allocating resources for development
needs and ultimately depends on the technology transfer and financial
resources required and made available to them.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Integrated management and sustainable development
of coastal and marine areas, including exclusive
economic zones
Basis for action
17.3. The coastal area contains diverse and productive habitats important
for human settlements, development and local subsistence. More than half
the world's population lives within 60 km of the shoreline, and this could
rise to three quarters by the year 2020. Many of the world's poor are
crowded in coastal areas. Coastal resources are vital for many local
communities and indigenous people. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is
also an important marine area where the States manage the development and
conservation of natural resources for the benefit of their people. For
small island States or countries, these are the areas most available for
development activities.
17.4. Despite national, subregional, regional and global efforts, current
approaches to the management of marine and coastal resources have not
always proved capable of achieving sustainable development, and coastal
resources and the coastal environment are being rapidly degraded and eroded
in many parts of the world.
Objectives
17.5. Coastal States commit themselves to integrated management and
sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment under
their national jurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:
(a) Provide for an integrated policy and decision-making process,
including all involved sectors, to promote compatibility and a balance of
uses;
(b) Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their
interactions;
(c) Concentrate on well-defined issues concerning coastal management;
(d) Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in project planning
and implementation, including prior assessment and systematic observation
of the impacts of major projects;
(e) Promote the development and application of methods, such as national
resource and environmental accounting, that reflect changes in value
resulting from uses of coastal and marine areas, including pollution,
marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction;
(f) Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals,
groups and organizations to relevant information and opportunities for
consultation and participation in planning and decision-making at
appropriate levels.
Activities
(a)Management-related activities
17.6. Each coastal State should consider establishing, or where necessary
strengthening, appropriate coordinating mechanisms (such as a high-level
policy planning body) for integrated management and sustainable development
of coastal and marine areas and their resources, at both the local and
national levels. Such mechanisms should include consultation, as
appropriate, with the academic and private sectors, non-governmental
organizations, local communities, resource user groups, and indigenous
people. Such national coordinating mechanisms could provide, inter alia,
for:
(a) Preparation and implementation of land and water use and siting
policies;
(b) Implementation of integrated coastal and marine management and
sustainable development plans and programmes at appropriate levels;
(c) Preparation of coastal profiles identifying critical areas,
including eroded zones, physical processes, development patterns, user
conflicts and specific priorities for management;
(d) Prior environmental impact assessment, systematic observation and
follow-up of major projects, including the systematic incorporation of
results in decision-making;
(e) Contingency plans for human induced and natural disasters, including
likely effects of potential climate change and sealevel rise, as well as
contingency plans for degradation and pollution of anthropogenic origin,
including spills of oil and other materials;
(f) Improvement of coastal human settlements, especially in housing,
drinking water and treatment and disposal of sewage, solid wastes and
industrial effluents;
(g) Periodic assessment of the impacts of external factors and phenomena
to ensure that the objectives of integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal areas and the marine environment are met;
(h) Conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats;
(i) Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainable development for
settlements, agriculture, tourism, fishing, ports and industries affecting
the coastal area;
(j) Infrastructure adaptation and alternative employment;
(k) Human resource development and training;
(l) Public education, awareness and information programmes;
(m) Promoting environmentally sound technology and sustainable
practices;
(n) Development and simultaneous implementation of environmental quality
criteria.
17.7. Coastal States, with the support of international organizations,
upon request, should undertake measures to maintain biological diversity
and productivity of marine species and habitats under national
jurisdiction. Inter alia, these measures might include: surveys of marine
biodiversity, inventories of endangered species and critical coastal and
marine habitats; establishment and management of protected areas; and
support of scientific research and dissemination of its results.
(b)Data and information
17.8. Coastal States, where necessary, should improve their capacity to
collect, analyse, assess and use information for sustainable use of
resources, including environmental impacts of activities affecting the
coastal and marine areas. Information for management purposes should
receive priority support in view of the intensity and magnitude of the
changes occurring in the coastal and marine areas. To this end, it is
necessary to, inter alia:
(a) Develop and maintain databases for assessment and management of
coastal areas and all seas and their resources;
(b) Develop socio-economic and environmental indicators;
(c) Conduct regular environmental assessment of the state of the
environment of coastal and marine areas;
(d) Prepare and maintain profiles of coastal area resources, activities,
uses, habitats and protected areas based on the criteria of sustainable
development;
(e) Exchange information and data.
17.9. Cooperation with developing countries, and, where applicable,
subregional and regional mechanisms, should be strengthened to improve
their capacities to achieve the above.
(c)International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.10. The role of international cooperation and coordination on a
bilateral basis and, where applicable, within a subregional, interregional,
regional or global framework, is to support and supplement national efforts
of coastal States to promote integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal and marine areas.
17.11. States should cooperate, as appropriate, in the preparation of
national guidelines for integrated coastal zone management and development,
drawing on existing experience. A global conference to exchange experience
in the field could be held before 1994.
Means of implementation
(a)Financing and cost evaluation
17.12. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $6 billion including about $50 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b)Scientific and technological means
17.13. States should cooperate in the development of necessary coastal
systematic observation, research and information management systems. They
should provide access to and transfer environmentally safe technologies and
methodologies for sustainable development of coastal and marine areas to
developing countries. They should also develop technologies and endogenous
scientific and technological capacities.
17.14. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in
these efforts, as indicated above, devoting special attention to developing
countries.
(c)Human resource development
17.15. Coastal States should promote and facilitate the organization of
education and training in integrated coastal and marine management and
sustainable development for scientists, technologists, managers (including
community-based managers) and users, leaders, indigenous peoples,
fisherfolk, women and youth, among others. Management and development, as
well as environmental protection concerns and local planning issues, should
be incorporated in educational curricula and public awareness campaigns,
with due regard to traditional ecological knowledge and socio-cultural
values.
17.16. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in the
areas indicated above, devoting special attention to developing countries.
(d)Capacity-building
17.17. Full cooperation should be extended, upon request, to coastal
States in their capacity-building efforts and, where appropriate,
capacity-building should be included in bilateral and multilateral
development cooperation. Coastal States may consider, inter alia:
(a) Ensuring capacity-building at the local level;
(b) Consulting on coastal and marine issues with local administrations,
the business community, the academic sector, resource user groups and the
general public;
(c) Coordinating sectoral programmes while building capacity;
(d) Identifying existing and potential capabilities, facilities and
needs for human resources development and scientific and technological
infrastructure;
(e) Developing scientific and technological means and research;
(f) Promoting and facilitating human resource development and education;
(g) Supporting "centres of excellence" in integrated coastal and marine
resource management;
(h) Supporting pilot demonstration programmes and projects in integrated
coastal and marine management.
B. Marine environmental protection
Basis for action
17.18. Degradation of the marine environment can result from a wide range
of sources. Land-based sources contribute 70 per cent of marine pollution,
while maritime transport and dumping-at-sea activities contribute 10 per
cent each. The contaminants that pose the greatest threat to the marine
environment are, in variable order of importance and depending on differing
national or regional situations, sewage, nutrients, synthetic organic
compounds, sediments, litter and plastics, metals, radionuclides,
oil/hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of the
polluting substances originating from land-based sources are of particular
concern to the marine environment since they exhibit at the same time
toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation in the food chain. There is
currently no global scheme to address marine pollution from land-based
sources.
17.19. Degradation of the marine environment can also result from a wide
range of activities on land. Human settlements, land use, construction of
coastal infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, urban development, tourism
and industry can affect the marine environment. Coastal erosion and
siltation are of particular concern.
17.20. Marine pollution is also caused by shipping and sea-based
activities. Approximately 600,000 tons of oil enter the oceans each year
as a result of normal shipping operations, accidents and illegal
discharges. With respect to offshore oil and gas activities, currently
machinery space discharges are regulated internationally and six regional
conventions to control platform discharges have been under consideration.
The nature and extent of environmental impacts from offshore oil
exploration and production activities generally account for a very small
proportion of marine pollution.
17.21. A precautionary and anticipatory rather than a reactive approach is
necessary to prevent the degradation of the marine environment. This
requires, inter alia, the adoption of precautionary measures, environmental
impact assessments, clean production techniques, recycling, waste audits
and minimization, construction and/or improvement of sewage treatment
facilities, quality management criteria for the proper handling of
hazardous substances, and a comprehensive approach to damaging impacts from
air, land and water. Any management framework must include the improvement
of coastal human settlements and the integrated management and development
of coastal areas.
Objectives
17.22. States, in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea on protection and preservation of the
marine environment, commit themselves, in accordance with their policies,
priorities and resources, to prevent, reduce and control degradation of the
marine environment so as to maintain and improve its life-support and
productive capacities. To this end, it is necessary to:
(a) Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatory approaches so as
to avoid degradation of the marine environment, as well as to reduce the
risk of long-term or irreversible adverse effects upon it;
(b) Ensure prior assessment of activities that may have significant
adverse impacts upon the marine environment;
(c) Integrate protection of the marine environment into relevant general
environmental, social and economic development policies;
(d) Develop economic incentives, where appropriate, to apply clean
technologies and other means consistent with the internalization of
environmental costs, such as the polluter pays principle, so as to avoid
degradation of the marine environment;
(e) Improve the living standards of coastal populations, particularly
in developing countries, so as to contribute to reducing the degradation of
the coastal and marine environment.
17.23. States agree that provision of additional financial resources,
through appropriate international mechanisms, as well as access to cleaner
technologies and relevant research, would be necessary to support action by
developing countries to implement this commitment.
Activities
(a)Management-related activities
Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine
environment from land-based activities
17.24. In carrying out their commitment to deal with degradation of the
marine environment from land-based activities, States should take action at
the national level and, where appropriate, at the regional and subregional
levels, in concert with action to implement programme area A, and should
take account of the Montreal Guidelines for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-Based Sources.
17.25. To this end, States, with the support of the relevant international
environmental, scientific, technical and financial organizations, should
cooperate, inter alia, to:
(a) Consider updating, strengthening and extending the Montreal
Guidelines, as appropriate;
(b) Assess the effectiveness of existing regional agreements and action
plans, where appropriate, with a view to identifying means of strengthening
action, where necessary, to prevent, reduce and control marine degradation
caused by land-based activities;
(c) Initiate and promote the development of new regional agreements,
where appropriate;
(d) Develop means of providing guidance on technologies to deal with the
major types of pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources,
according to the best scientific evidence;
(e) Develop policy guidance for relevant global funding mechanisms;
(f) Identify additional steps requiring international cooperation.
17.26. The UNEP Governing Council is invited to convene, as soon as
practicable, an intergovernmental meeting on protection of the marine
environment from land-based activities.
17.27. As concerns sewage, priority actions to be considered by States may
include:
(a) Incorporating sewage concerns when formulating or reviewing coastal
development plans, including human settlement plans;
(b) Building and maintaining sewage treatment facilities in accordance
with national policies and capacities and international cooperation
available;
(c) Locating coastal outfalls so as to maintain an acceptable level of
environmental quality and to avoid exposing shell fisheries, water intakes
and bathing areas to pathogens;
(d) Promoting environmentally sound co-treatments of domestic and
compatible industrial effluents, with the introduction, where practicable,
of controls on the entry of effluents that are not compatible with the
system;
(e) Promoting primary treatment of municipal sewage discharged to
rivers, estuaries and the sea, or other solutions appropriate to specific
sites;
(f) Establishing and improving local, national, subregional and
regional, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring programmes to control
effluent discharge, using minimum sewage effluent guidelines and water
quality criteria and giving due consideration to the characteristics of
receiving bodies and the volume and type of pollutants.
17.28. As concerns other sources of pollution, priority actions to be
considered by States may include:
(a) Establishing or improving, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring
programmes to control effluent discharges and emissions, including the
development and application of control and recycling technologies;
(b) Promoting risk and environmental impact assessments to help ensure
an acceptable level of environmental quality;
(c) Promoting assessment and cooperation at the regional level, where
appropriate, with respect to the input of point source pollutants from new
installations;
(d) Eliminating the emission or discharge of organohalogen compounds
that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine environment;
(e) Reducing the emission or discharge of other synthetic organic
compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine
environment;
(f) Promoting controls over anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and
phosphorus that enter coastal waters where such problems as eutrophication
threaten the marine environment or its resources;
(g) Cooperating with developing countries, through financial and
technological support, to maximize the best practicable control and
reduction of substances and wastes that are toxic, persistent or liable to
bio-accumulate and to establish environmentally sound land-based waste
disposal alternatives to sea dumping;
(h) Cooperating in the development and implementation of environmentally
sound land-use techniques and practices to reduce run-off to water-courses
and estuaries which would cause pollution or degradation of the marine
environment;
(i) Promoting the use of environmentally less harmful pesticides and
fertilizers and alternative methods for pest control, and considering the
prohibition of those found to be environmentally unsound;
(j) Adopting new initiatives at national, subregional and regional
levels for controlling the input of non-point source pollutants, which
require broad changes in sewage and waste management, agricultural
practices, mining, construction and transportation.
17.29. As concerns physical destruction of coastal and marine areas
causing degradation of the marine environment, priority actions should
include control and prevention of coastal erosion and siltation due to
anthropogenic factors related to, inter alia, land-use and construction
techniques and practices. Watershed management practices should be
promoted so as to prevent, control and reduce degradation of the marine
environment.
Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine
environment from sea-based activities
17.30. States, acting individually, bilaterally, regionally or
multilaterally and within the framework of IMO and other relevant
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as
appropriate, should assess the need for additional measures to address
degradation of the marine environment:
(a) From shipping, by:
(i) Supporting wider ratification and implementation of relevant
shipping conventions and protocols;
(ii)Facilitating the processes in (i), providing support to individual
States upon request to help them overcome the obstacles identified
by them;
(iii)Cooperating in monitoring marine pollution from ships, especially
from illegal discharges (e.g., aerial surveillance), and enforcing
MARPOL discharge, provisions more rigorously;
(iv)Assessing the state of pollution caused by ships in particularly
sensitive areas identified by IMO and taking action to implement
applicable measures, where necessary, within such areas to ensure
compliance with generally accepted international regulations;
(v) Taking action to ensure respect of areas designated by coastal
States, within their exclusive economic zones, consistent with
international law, in order to protect and preserve rare or fragile
ecosystems, such as coral reefs and mangroves;
(vi)Considering the adoption of appropriate rules on ballast water
discharge to prevent the spread of non-indigenous organisms;
(vii)Promoting navigational safety by adequate charting of coasts and
ship-routing, as appropriate;
(viii)Assessing the need for stricter international regulations to
further reduce the risk of accidents and pollution from cargo ships
(including bulk carriers);
(ix)Encouraging IMO and IAEA to work together to complete consideration
of a code on the carriage of irradiated nuclear fuel in flasks on
board ships;
(x) Revising and updating the IMO Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant
Ships and considering how best to implement a revised code;
(xi)Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding development of
appropriate measures for reducing air pollution from ships;
(xii)Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regarding the
development of an international regime governing the transportation
of hazardous and noxious substances carried by ships and further
considering whether the compensation funds similar to the ones
established under the Fund Convention would be appropriate in
respect of pollution damage caused by substances other than oil;
(b) From dumping, by:
(i) Supporting wider ratification, implementation and participation in
relevant Conventions on dumping at sea, including early conclusion
of a future strategy for the London Dumping Convention;
(ii)Encouraging the London Dumping Convention parties to take
appropriate steps to stop ocean dumping and incineration of
hazardous substances;
(c) From offshore oil and gas platforms, by assessing existing
regulatory measures to address discharges, emissions and safety and
assessing the need for additional measures;
(d) From ports, by facilitating establishment of port reception
facilities for the collection of oily and chemical residues and garbage
from ships, especially in MARPOL special areas, and promoting the
establishment of smaller scale facilities in marinas and fishing harbours.
17.31. IMO and as appropriate, other competent United Nations
organizations, when requested by the States concerned, should assess, where
appropriate, the state of marine pollution in areas of congested shipping,
such as heavily used international straits, with a view to ensuring
compliance with generally accepted international regulations, particularly
those related to illegal discharges from ships, in accordance with the
provisions of Part III of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea.
17.32. States should take measures to reduce water pollution caused by
organotin compounds used in anti-fouling paints.
17.33. States should consider ratifying the Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, which addresses, inter alia, the
development of contingency plans on the national and international level,
as appropriate, including provision of oil-spill response material and
training of personnel, including its possible extension to chemical spill
response.
17.34. States should intensify international cooperation to strengthen or
establish, where necessary, regional oil/chemical-spill response centres
and/or, as appropriate, mechanisms in cooperation with relevant
subregional, regional or global intergovernmental organizations and, where
appropriate, industry-based organizations.
(b)Data and information
17.35. States should, as appropriate, and in accordance with the means at
their disposal and with due regard for their technical and scientific
capacity and resources, make systematic observations on the state of the
marine environment. To this end, States should, as appropriate, consider:
(a) Establishing systematic observation systems to measure marine
environmental quality, including causes and effects of marine degradation,
as a basis for management;
(b) Regularly exchanging information on marine degradation caused by
land-based and sea-based activities and on actions to prevent, control and
reduce such degradation;
(c) Supporting and expanding international programmes for systematic
observations such as the mussel watch programme, building on existing
facilities with special attention to developing countries;
(d) Establishing a clearing-house on marine pollution control
information, including processes and technologies to address marine
pollution control and to support their transfer to developing countries and
other countries with demonstrated needs;
(e) Establishing a global profile and database providing information on
the sources, types, amounts and effects of pollutants reaching the marine
environment from land-based activities in coastal areas and sea-based
sources;
(f) Allocating adequate funding for capacity-building and training
programmes to ensure the full participation of developing countries, in
particular, in any international scheme under the organs and organizations
of the United Nations system for the collection, analysis and use of data
and information.
Means of implementation
(a)Financing and cost evaluation
17.36. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $200 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b)Scientific and technological means
17.37. National, subregional and regional action programmes will, where
appropriate, require technology transfer, in conformity with chapter 34,
and financial resources, particularly where developing countries are
concerned, including:
(a) Assistance to industries in identifying and adopting clean
production or cost-effective pollution control technologies;
(b) Planning development and application of low-cost and low-maintenance
sewage installation and treatment technologies for developing countries;
(c) Equipment of laboratories to observe systematically human and other
impacts on the marine environment;
(d) Identification of appropriate oil- and chemical-spill control
materials, including low-cost locally available materials and techniques,
suitable for pollution emergencies in developing countries;
(e) Study of the use of persistent organohalogens that are liable to
accumulate in the marine environment to identify those that cannot be
adequately controlled and to provide a basis for a decision on a time
schedule for phasing them out as soon as practicable;
(f) Establishment of a clearing-house for information on marine
pollution control, including processes and technologies to address marine
pollution control, and support for their transfer to developing and other
countries with demonstrated needs.
(c)Human resource development
17.38. States individually or in cooperation with each other and with the
support of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, as appropriate, should:
(a) Provide training for critical personnel required for the adequate
protection of the marine environment as identified by training needs'
surveys at the national, regional or subregional levels;
(b) Promote the introduction of marine environmental protection topics
into the curriculum of marine studies programmes;
(c) Establish training courses for oil- and chemical-spill response
personnel, in cooperation, where appropriate, with the oil and chemical
industries;
(d) Conduct workshops on environmental aspects of port operations and
development;
(e) Strengthen and provide secure financing for new and existing
specialized international centres of professional maritime education;
(f) States should, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation,
support and supplement the national efforts of developing countries as
regards human resource development in relation to prevention and reduction
of degradation of the marine environment.
(d)Capacity-building
17.39. National planning and coordinating bodies should be given the
capacity and authority to review all land-based activities and sources of
pollution for their impacts on the marine environment and to propose
appropriate control measures.
17.40. Research facilities should be strengthened or, where appropriate,
developed in developing countries for systematic observation of marine
pollution, environmental impact assessment and development of control
recommendations and should be managed and staffed by local experts.
17.41. Special arrangements will be needed to provide adequate financial
and technical resources to assist developing countries in preventing and
solving problems associated with activities that threaten the marine
environment.
17.42. An international funding mechanism should be created for the
application of appropriate sewage treatment technologies and building
sewage treatment facilities, including grants or concessional loans from
international agencies and appropriate regional funds, replenished at least
in part on a revolving basis by user fees.
17.43. In carrying out these programme activities, particular attention
needs to be given to the problems of developing countries that would bear
an unequal burden because of their lack of facilities, expertise or
technical capacities.
C. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living
resources of the high seas
Basis for action
17.44. Over the last decade, fisheries on the high seas have considerably
expanded and currently represent approximately 5 per cent of total world
landings. The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea on the marine living resources of the high seas sets forth rights
and obligations of States with respect to conservation and utilization of
those resources.
17.45. However, management of high seas fisheries, including the adoption,
monitoring and enforcement of effective conservation measures, is
inadequate in many areas and some resources are overutilized. There are
problems of unregulated fishing, overcapitalization, excessive fleet size,
vessel reflagging to escape controls, insufficiently selective gear,
unreliable databases and lack of sufficient cooperation between States.
Action by States whose nationals and vessels fish on the high seas, as well
as cooperation at the bilateral, subregional, regional and global levels,
is essential particularly for highly migratory species and straddling
stocks. Such action and cooperation should address inadequacies in fishing
practices, as well as in biological knowledge, fisheries statistics and
improvement of systems for handling data. Emphasis should also be on
multi-species management and other approaches that take into account the
relationships among species, especially in addressing depleted species, but
also in identifying the potential of underutilized or unutilized
populations.
Objectives
17.46. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use of
marine living resources on the high seas. To this end, it is necessary to:
(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to
meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and development
goals;
(b) Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels that can
produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant
environmental and economic factors, taking into consideration relationships
among species;
(c) Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize
by-catch of non-target species;
(d) Ensure effective monitoring and enforcement with respect to fishing
activities;
(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;
(f) Preserve habitats and other ecologically sensitive areas;
(g) Promote scientific research with respect to the marine living
resources in the high seas.
17.47. Nothing in paragraph 17.46 above restricts the right of a State or
the competence of an international organization, as appropriate, to
prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals on the high
seas more strictly than provided for in that paragraph. States shall
cooperate with a view to the conservation of marine mammals and, in the
case of cetaceans, shall in particular work through the appropriate
international organizations for their conservation, management and study.
17.48. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above objectives
is dependent upon their capabilities, including the financial, scientific
and technological means at their disposal. Adequate financial, scientific
and technological cooperation should be provided to support action by them
to implement these objectives.
Activities
(a)Management-related activities
17.49. States should take effective action, including bilateral and
multilateral cooperation, where appropriate at the subregional, regional
and global levels, to ensure that high seas fisheries are managed in
accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea. In particular, they should:
(a) Give full effect to these provisions with regard to fisheries
populations whose ranges lie both within and beyond exclusive economic
zones (straddling stocks);
(b) Give full effect to these provisions with regard to highly migratory
species;
(c) Negotiate, where appropriate, international agreements for the
effective management and conservation of fishery stocks;
(d) Define and identify appropriate management units;
(e) States should convene, as soon as possible, an intergovernmental
conference under United Nations auspices, taking into account relevant
activities at the subregional, regional and global levels, with a view to
promoting effective implementation of the provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea on straddling fish stocks and highly
migratory fish stocks. The conference, drawing, inter alia, on scientific
and technical studies by FAO, should identify and assess existing problems
related to the conservation and management of such fish stocks, and
consider means of improving cooperation on fisheries among States, and
formulate appropriate recommendations. The work and the results of the
conference should be fully consistent with the provisions of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, in particular the rights and
obligations of coastal States and States fishing on the high seas.
17.50. States should ensure that fishing activities by vessels flying
their flags on the high seas take place in a manner so as to minimize
incidental catch.
17.51. States should take effective action consistent with international
law to monitor and control fishing activities by vessels flying their flags
on the high seas to ensure compliance with applicable conservation and
management rules, including full, detailed, accurate and timely reporting
of catches and effort.
17.52. States should take effective action, consistent with international
law, to deter reflagging of vessels by their nationals as a means of
avoiding compliance with applicable conservation and management rules for
fishing activities on the high seas.
17.53. States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other comparable
destructive fishing practices.
17.54. States should fully implement General Assembly resolution 46/215 on
large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing.
17.55. States should take measures to increase the availability of marine
living resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and
discards, and improving techniques of processing, distribution and
transportation.
(b)Data and information
17.56. States, with the support of international organizations, whether
subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should cooperate to:
(a) Promote enhanced collection of data necessary for the conservation
and sustainable use of the marine living resources of the high seas;
(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information adequate
for fisheries assessment;
(c) Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as stock
assessment and bioeconomic models;
(d) Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment
programmes.
(c)International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.57. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and within
the framework of subregional and regional fisheries bodies, as appropriate,
and with the support of other international intergovernmental agencies,
should assess high seas resource potentials and develop profiles of all
stocks (target and non-target).
17.58. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate
coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and between
subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries bodies.
17.59. Effective cooperation within existing subregional, regional or
global fisheries bodies should be encouraged. Where such organizations do
not exist, States should, as appropriate, cooperate to establish such
organizations.
17.60. States with an interest in a high seas fishery regulated by an
existing subregional and/or regional high seas fisheries organization of
which they are not members should be encouraged to join that organization,
where appropriate.
17.61. States recognize:
(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the
conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of whaling
pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling;
(b) The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific
Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as well as
of other cetaceans;
(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical
Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and
North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management and
study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.
17.62. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and study
of cetaceans.
Means of implementation
(a)Financing and cost evaluation
17.63. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $12 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b)Scientific and technological means
17.64. States, with the support of relevant international organizations,
where necessary, should develop collaborative technical and research
programmes to improve understanding of the life cycles and migrations of
species found on the high seas, including identifying critical areas and
life stages.
17.65. States, with the support of relevant international organizations,
whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should:
(a) Develop databases on the high seas marine living resources and
fisheries;
(b) Collect and correlate marine environmental data with high seas
marine living resources data, including the impacts of regional and global
changes brought about by natural causes and by human activities;
(c) Cooperate in coordinating research programmes to provide the
knowledge necessary to manage high seas resources.
(c)Human resource development
17.66. Human resource development at the national level should be targeted
at both development and management of high seas resources, including
training in high seas fishing techniques and in high seas resource
assessment, strengthening cadres of personnel to deal with high seas
resource management and conservation and related environmental issues, and
training observers and inspectors to be placed on fishing vessels.
(d)Capacity-building
17.67. States, with the support, where appropriate, of relevant
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
should cooperate to develop or upgrade systems and institutional structures
for monitoring, control and surveillance, as well as the research capacity
for assessment of marine living resource populations.
17.68. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be needed
to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of data and
information, scientific and technological means, and human resource
development in order to participate effectively in the conservation and
sustainable utilization of high seas marine living resources.
D. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living
resources under national jurisdiction
Basis for action
17.69. Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 million tons of fish and shellfish
per year, 95 per cent of which is taken from waters under national
jurisdiction. Yields have increased nearly fivefold over the past four
decades. The provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea on marine living resources of the exclusive economic zone and other
areas under national jurisdiction set forth rights and obligations of
States with respect to conservation and utilization of those resources.
17.70. Marine living resources provide an important source of protein in
many countries and their use is often of major importance to local
communities and indigenous people. Such resources provide food and
livelihoods to millions of people and, if sustainably utilized, offer
increased potential to meet nutritional and social needs, particularly in
developing countries. To realize this potential requires improved
knowledge and identification of marine living resource stocks, particularly
of underutilized and unutilized stocks and species, use of new
technologies, better handling and processing facilities to avoid wastage,
and improved quality and training of skilled personnel to manage and
conserve effectively the marine living resources of the exclusive economic
zone and other areas under national jurisdiction. Emphasis should also be
on multi-species management and other approaches that take into account the
relationships among species.
17.71. Fisheries in many areas under national jurisdiction face mounting
problems, including local overfishing, unauthorized incursions by foreign
fleets, ecosystem degradation, overcapitalization and excessive fleet
sizes, underevaluation of catch, insufficiently selective gear, unreliable
databases, and increasing competition between artisanal and large-scale
fishing, and between fishing and other types of activities.
17.72. Problems extend beyond fisheries. Coral reefs and other marine and
coastal habitats, such as mangroves and estuaries, are among the most
highly diverse, integrated and productive of the Earth's ecosystems. They
often serve important ecological functions, provide coastal protection, and
are critical resources for food, energy, tourism and economic development.
In many parts of the world, such marine and coastal systems are under
stress or are threatened from a variety of sources, both human and natural.
Objectives
17.73. Coastal States, particularly developing countries and States whose
economies are overwhelmingly dependent on the exploitation of the marine
living resources of their exclusive economic zones, should obtain the full
social and economic benefits from sustainable utilization of marine living
resources within their exclusive economic zones and other areas under
national jurisdiction.
17.74. States commit themselves to the conservation and sustainable use of
marine living resources under national jurisdiction. To this end, it is
necessary to:
(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine living resources to
meet human nutritional needs, as well as social, economic and development
goals;
(b) Take into account traditional knowledge and interests of local
communities, small-scale artisanal fisheries and indigenous people in
development and management programmes;
(c) Maintain or restore populations of marine species at levels that can
produce the maximum sustainable yield as qualified by relevant
environmental and economic factors, taking into consideration relationships
among species;
(d) Promote the development and use of selective fishing gear and
practices that minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize
by-catch of non-target species;
(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;
(f) Preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well as habitats and other
ecologically sensitive areas.
17.75. Nothing in paragraph 17.74 above restricts the right of a coastal
State or the competence of an international organization, as appropriate,
to prohibit, limit or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals more
strictly than provided for in that paragraph. States shall cooperate with
a view to the conservation of marine mammals and in the case of cetaceans
shall in particular work through the appropriate international
organizations for their conservation, management and study.
17.76. The ability of developing countries to fulfil the above objectives
is dependent upon their capabilities, including the financial, scientific
and technological means at their disposal. Adequate financial, scientific
and technological cooperation should be provided to support action by them
to implement these objectives.
Activities
(a)Management-related activities
17.77. States should ensure that marine living resources of the exclusive
economic zone and other areas under national jurisdiction are conserved and
managed in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea.
17.78. States, in implementing the provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, should address the issues of straddling
stocks and highly migratory species, and, taking fully into account the
objective set out in paragraph 17.73, access to the surplus of allowable
catches.
17.79. Coastal States, individually or through bilateral and/or
multilateral cooperation and with the support, as appropriate of
international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
should inter alia:
(a) Assess the potential of marine living resources, including
underutilized or unutilized stocks and species, by developing inventories,
where necessary, for their conservation and sustainable use;
(b) Implement strategies for the sustainable use of marine living
resources, taking into account the special needs and interests of
small-scale artisanal fisheries, local communities and indigenous people to
meet human nutritional and other development needs;
(c) Implement, in particular in developing countries, mechanisms to
develop mariculture, aquaculture and small-scale, deep-sea and oceanic
fisheries within areas under national jurisdiction where assessments show
that marine living resources are potentially available;
(d) Strengthen their legal and regulatory frameworks, where appropriate,
including management, enforcement and surveillance capabilities, to
regulate activities related to the above strategies;
(e) Take measures to increase the availability of marine living
resources as human food by reducing wastage, post-harvest losses and
discards, and improving techniques of processing, distribution and
transportation;
(f) Develop and promote the use of environmentally sound technology
under criteria compatible with the sustainable use of marine living
resources, including assessment of the environmental impact of major new
fishery practices;
(g) Enhance the productivity and utilization of their marine living
resources for food and income.
17.80. Coastal States should explore the scope for expanding recreational
and tourist activities based on marine living resources, including those
for providing alternative sources of income. Such activities should be
compatible with conservation and sustainable development policies and
plans.
17.81. Coastal States should support the sustainability of small-scale
artisanal fisheries. To this end, they should, as appropriate:
(a) Integrate small-scale artisanal fisheries development in marine and
coastal planning, taking into account the interests and, where appropriate,
encouraging representation of fishermen, small-scale fisherworkers, women,
local communities and indigenous people;
(b) Recognize the rights of small-scale fishworkers and the special
situation of indigenous people and local communities, including their
rights to utilization and protection of their habitats on a sustainable
basis;
(c) Develop systems for the acquisition and recording of traditional
knowledge concerning marine living resources and environment and promote
the incorporation of such knowledge into management systems.
17.82. Coastal States should ensure that, in the negotiation and
implementation of international agreements on the development or
conservation of marine living resources, the interests of local communities
and indigenous people are taken into account, in particular their right to
subsistence.
17.83. Coastal States, with the support, as appropriate, of international
organizations should conduct analyses of the potential for aquaculture in
marine and coastal areas under national jurisdiction and apply appropriate
safeguards as to the introduction of new species.
17.84. States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning and other comparable
destructive fishing practices.
17.85. States should identify marine ecosystems exhibiting high levels of
biodiversity and productivity and other critical habitat areas and should
provide necessary limitations on use in these areas, through, inter alia,
designation of protected areas. Priority should be accorded, as
appropriate, to:
(a) Coral reef ecosystems;
(b) Estuaries;
(c) Temperate and tropical wetlands, including mangroves;
(d) Seagrass beds;
(e) Other spawning and nursery areas.
(b)Data and information
17.86. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international
organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should:
(a) Promote enhanced collection and exchange of data necessary for the
conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources under
national jurisdiction;
(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information
necessary for fisheries assessment;
(c) Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as stock
assessment and bioeconomic models;
(d) Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment
programmes;
(e) Complete or update marine biodiversity, marine living resource and
critical habitat profiles of exclusive economic zones and other areas under
national jurisdiction, taking account of changes in the environment brought
about by natural causes and human activities.
(c)International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.87. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, and with
the support of relevant United Nations and other international
organizations, should cooperate to:
(a) Develop financial and technical cooperation to enhance the
capacities of developing countries in small-scale and oceanic fisheries, as
well as in coastal aquaculture and mariculture;
(b) Promote the contribution of marine living resources to eliminate
malnutrition and to achieve food self-sufficiency in developing countries,
inter alia, by minimizing post-harvest losses and managing stocks for
guaranteed sustainable yields;
(c) Develop agreed criteria for the use of selective fishing gear and
practices to minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize
by-catch of non-target species;
(d) Promote seafood quality, including through national quality
assurance systems for seafood, in order to promote access to markets,
improve consumer confidence and maximize economic returns.
17.88. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate
coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and between
subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries bodies.
17.89. States recognize:
(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the
conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of whaling
pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling;
(b) The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific
Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as well as
of other cetaceans;
(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical
Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and
North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management and
study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.
17.90. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and study
of cetaceans.
Means of implementation
(a)Financing and cost evaluation
17.91. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $6 billion, including about $60 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b)Scientific and technological means
17.92. States, with the support of relevant intergovernmental
organizations, as appropriate, should:
(a) Provide for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to
develop fisheries, aquaculture and mariculture, particularly to developing
countries;
(b) Accord special attention to mechanisms for transferring resource
information and improved fishing and aquaculture technologies to fishing
communities at the local level;
(c) Promote the study, scientific assessment and use of appropriate
traditional management systems;
(d) Consider observing, as appropriate, the FAO/ICES Code of Practice
for Consideration of Transfer and Introduction of Marine and Freshwater
Organisms;
(e) Promote scientific research on marine areas of particular importance
for marine living resources, such as areas of high diversity, endemism and
productivity and migratory stopover points.
(c)Human resource development
17.93. States individually, or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support of relevant international organizations,
whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should encourage
and provide support for developing countries, inter alia, to:
(a) Expand multidisciplinary education, training and research on marine
living resources, particularly in the social and economic sciences;
(b) Create training opportunities at national and regional levels to
support artisanal (including subsistence) fisheries, to develop small-scale
use of marine living resources and to encourage equitable participation of
local communities, small-scale fish workers, women and indigenous people;
(c) Introduce topics relating to the importance of marine living
resources in educational curricula at all levels.
(d)Capacity-building
17.94. Coastal States, with the support of relevant subregional, regional
and global agencies, where appropriate, should:
(a) Develop research capacities for assessment of marine living resource
populations and monitoring;
(b) Provide support to local fishing communities, in particular those
that rely on fishing for subsistence, indigenous people and women,
including, as appropriate, the technical and financial assistance to
organize, maintain, exchange and improve traditional knowledge of marine
living resources and fishing techniques, and upgrade knowledge on marine
ecosystems;
(c) Establish sustainable aquaculture development strategies, including
environmental management in support of rural fish-farming communities;
(d) Develop and strengthen, where the need may arise, institutions
capable of implementing the objectives and activities related to the
conservation and management of marine living resources.
17.95. Special support, including cooperation among States, will be needed
to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of data and
information, scientific and technological means and human resource
development in order to enable them to participate effectively in the
conservation and sustainable use of marine living resources under national
jurisdiction.
E. Addressing critical uncertainties for the management
of the marine environment and climate change
Basis for action
17.96. The marine environment is vulnerable and sensitive to climate and
atmospheric changes. Rational use and development of coastal areas, all
seas and marine resources, as well as conservation of the marine
environment, requires the ability to determine the present state of these
systems and to predict future conditions. The high degree of uncertainty
in present information inhibits effective management and limits the ability
to make predictions and assess environmental change. Systematic collection
of data on marine environmental parameters will be needed to apply
integrated management approaches and to predict effects of global climate
change and of atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone depletion, on living
marine resources and the marine environment. In order to determine the
role of the oceans and all seas in driving global systems and to predict
natural and human-induced changes in marine and coastal environments, the
mechanisms to collect, synthesize and disseminate information from research
and systematic observation activities need to be restructured and
reinforced considerably.
17.97. There are many uncertainties about climate change and particularly
about sealevel rise. Small increases in sealevel have the potential of
causing significant damage to small islands and low-lying coasts. Response
strategies should be based on sound data. A long-term cooperative research
commitment is needed to provide the data required for global climate models
and to reduce uncertainty. Meanwhile, precautionary measures should be
undertaken to diminish the risks and effects, particularly on small islands
and on low-lying and coastal areas of the world.
17.98. Increased ultraviolet radiation derived from ozone depletion has
been reported in some areas of the world. An assessment of its effects in
the marine environment is needed to reduce uncertainty and to provide a
basis for action.
Objectives
17.99. States, in accordance with provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea on marine scientific research, commit
themselves to improve the understanding of the marine environment and its
role on global processes. To this end, it is necessary to:
(a) Promote scientific research on and systematic observation of the
marine environment within the limits of national jurisdiction and high
seas, including interactions with atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone
depletion;
(b) Promote exchange of data and information resulting from scientific
research and systematic observation and from traditional ecological
knowledge and ensure its availability to policy makers and the public at
the national level;
(c) Cooperate with a view to the development of standard
inter-calibrated procedures, measuring techniques, data storage and
management capabilities for scientific research on and systematic
observation of the marine environment.
Activities
(a)Management-related activities
17.100. States should consider, inter alia:
(a) Coordinating national and regional observation programmes for
coastal and near-shore phenomena related to climate change and for research
parameters essential for marine and coastal management in all regions;
(b) Providing improved forecasts of marine conditions for the safety of
inhabitants of coastal areas and for the efficiency of maritime operations;
(c) Cooperating with a view to adopting special measures to cope with
and adapt to potential climate change and sealevel rise, including the
development of globally accepted methodologies for coastal vulnerability
assessment, modelling and response strategies particularly for priority
areas, such as small islands and low-lying and critical coastal areas;
(d) Identifying ongoing and planned programmes of systematic observation
of the marine environment, with a view to integrating activities and
establishing priorities to address critical uncertainties for oceans and
all seas;
(e) Initiating a programme of research to determine the marine
biological effects of increased levels of ultraviolet rays due to the
depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and to evaluate the possible
effects.
17.101. Recognizing the important role that oceans and all seas play in
attenuating potential climate change, IOC and other relevant competent
United Nations bodies, with the support of countries having the resources
and expertise, should carry out analysis, assessments and systematic
observation of the role of oceans as a carbon sink.
(b)Data and information
17.102. States should consider, inter alia:
(a) Increasing international cooperation particularly with a view to
strengthening national scientific and technological capabilities for
analysing, assessing and predicting global climate and environmental
change;
(b) Supporting the role of the IOC in cooperation with WMO, UNEP and
other international organizations in the collection, analysis and
distribution of data and information from the oceans and all seas,
including as appropriate, through the Global Ocean Observing System, giving
special attention to the need for IOC to develop fully the strategy for
providing training and technical assistance for developing countries
through its Training, Education and Mutual Assistance (TEMA) programme;
(c) Creating national multisectoral information bases, covering the
results of research and systematic observation programmes;
(d) Linking these databases to existing data and information services
and mechanisms, such as World Weather Watch and Earthwatch;
(e) Cooperating with a view to the exchange of data and information and
its storage and archiving through the world and regional data centres;
(f) Cooperating to ensure full participation of developing countries,
in particular, in any international scheme under the organs and
organizations of the United Nations system for the collection, analysis and
use of data and information.
(c)International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.103. States should consider bilaterally and multilaterally and in
cooperation with international organizations, whether subregional,
regional, interregional or global, where appropriate:
(a) Providing technical cooperation in developing the capacity of
coastal and island States for marine research and systematic observation
and for using its results;
(b) Strengthening existing national institutions and creating, where
necessary, international analysis and prediction mechanisms in order to
prepare and exchange regional and global oceanographic analyses and
forecasts and to provide facilities for international research and training
at national, subregional and regional levels, where applicable.
17.104. In recognition of the value of Antarctica as an area for the
conduct of scientific research, in particular research essential to
understanding the global environment, States carrying out such research
activities in Antarctica should, as provided for in Article III of the
Antarctic Treaty, continue to:
(a) Ensure that data and information resulting from such research are
freely available to the international community;
(b) Enhance access of the international scientific community and
specialized agencies of the United Nations to such data and information,
including the encouragement of periodic seminars and symposia.
17.105. States should strengthen high-level inter-agency, subregional,
regional and global coordination, as appropriate, and review mechanisms to
develop and integrate systematic observation networks. This would include:
(a) Review of existing regional and global databases;
(b) Mechanisms to develop comparable and compatible techniques, validate
methodologies and measurements, organize regular scientific reviews,
develop options for corrective measures, agree on formats for presentation
and storage, and communicate the information gathered to potential users;
(c) Systematic observation of coastal habitats and sealevel changes,
inventories of marine pollution sources and reviews of fisheries
statistics;
(d) Organization of periodic assessments of ocean and all seas and
coastal area status and trends.
17.106. International cooperation, through relevant organizations within
the United Nations system, should support countries to develop and
integrate regional systematic long-term observation programmes, when
applicable, into the Regional Seas Programmes in a coordinated fashion to
implement, where appropriate, subregional, regional and global observing
systems based on the principle of exchange of data. One aim should be the
predicting of the effects of climate-related emergencies on existing
coastal physical and socio-economic infrastructure.
17.107. Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, in the fields of human
health, agriculture and marine environment, States and international
organizations should consider taking appropriate remedial measures.
Means of implementation
(a)Financing and cost evaluation
17.108. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $750 million, including about $480 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
17.109. Developed countries should provide the financing for the further
development and implementation of the Global Ocean Observing System.
(b)Scientific and technological means
17.110. To address critical uncertainties through systematic coastal and
marine observations and research, coastal States should cooperate in the
development of procedures that allow for comparable analysis and soundness
of data. They should also cooperate on a subregional and regional basis,
through existing programmes where applicable, share infrastructure and
expensive and sophisticated equipment, develop quality assurance procedures
and develop human resources jointly. Special attention should be given to
transfer of scientific and technological knowledge and means to support
States, particularly developing countries, in the development of endogenous
capabilities.
17.111. International organizations should support, when requested,
coastal countries in implementing research projects on the effects of
additional ultraviolet radiation.
(c)Human resource development
17.112. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral
cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international
organizations whether subregional, regional or global, should develop and
implement comprehensive programmes, particularly in developing countries,
for a broad and coherent approach to meeting their core human resource
needs in the marine sciences.
(d)Capacity-building
17.113. States should strengthen or establish as necessary, national
scientific and technological oceanographic commissions or equivalent bodies
to develop, support and coordinate marine science activities and work
closely with international organizations.
17.114. States should use existing subregional and regional mechanisms,
where applicable, to develop knowledge of the marine environment, exchange
information, organize systematic observations and assessments, and make the
most effective use of scientists, facilities and equipment. They should
also cooperate in the promotion of endogenous research capabilities in
developing countries.
F. Strengthening international, including
regional, cooperation and coordination
Basis for action
17.115. It is recognized that the role of international cooperation is to
support and supplement national efforts. Implementation of strategies and
activities under the programme areas relative to marine and coastal areas
and seas requires effective institutional arrangements at national,
subregional, regional and global levels, as appropriate. There are
numerous national and international, including regional, institutions, both
within and outside the United Nations system, with competence in marine
issues, and there is a need to improve coordination and strengthen links
among them. It is also important to ensure that an integrated and
multisectoral approach to marine issues is pursued at all levels.
Objectives
17.116. States commit themselves, in accordance with their policies,
priorities and resources, to promote institutional arrangements necessary
to support the implementation of the programme areas in this chapter. To
this end, it is necessary, as appropriate, to:
(a) Integrate relevant sectoral activities addressing environment and
development in marine and coastal areas at national, subregional, regional
and global levels, as appropriate;
(b) Promote effective information exchange and, where appropriate,
institutional linkages between bilateral and multilateral national,
regional, subregional and interregional institutions dealing with
environment and development in marine and coastal areas;
(c) Promote within the United Nations system, regular intergovernmental
review and consideration of environment and development issues with respect
to marine and coastal areas;
(d) Promote the effective operation of coordinating mechanisms for the
components of the United Nations system dealing with issues of environment
and development in marine and coastal areas, as well as links with relevant
international development bodies.
Activities
(a)Management-related activities
Global
17.117. The General Assembly should provide for regular consideration,
within the United Nations system, at the intergovernmental level of general
marine and coastal issues, including environment and development matters,
and should request the Secretary-General and executive heads of United
Nations agencies and organizations to:
(a) Strengthen coordination and develop improved arrangements among the
relevant United Nations organizations with major marine and coastal
responsibilities, including their subregional and regional components;
(b) Strengthen coordination between those organizations and other United
Nations organizations, institutions and specialized agencies dealing with
development, trade and other related economic issues, as appropriate;
(c) Improve representation of United Nations agencies dealing with the
marine environment in United Nations system-wide coordination efforts;
(d) Promote, where necessary, greater collaboration between the United
Nations agencies and subregional and regional coastal and marine
programmes;
(e) Develop a centralized system to provide for information on
legislation and advice on implementation of legal agreements on marine
environmental and development issues.
17.118. States recognize that environmental policies should deal with the
root causes of environmental degradation, thus preventing environmental
measures from resulting in unnecessary restrictions to trade. Trade policy
measures for environmental purposes should not constitute a means of
arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on
international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with environmental
challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be
avoided. Environmental measures addressing international environmental
problems should, as far as possible, be based on an international
consensus. Domestic measures targeted to achieve certain environmental
objectives may need trade measures to render them effective. Should trade
policy measures be found necessary for the enforcement of environmental
policies, certain principles and rules should apply. These could include,
inter alia, the principle of non-discrimination; the principle that the
trade measure chosen should be the least trade-restrictive necessary to
achieve the objectives; an obligation to ensure transparency in the use of
trade measures related to the environment and to provide adequate
notification of national regulations; and the need to give consideration to
the special conditions and development requirements of developing countries
as they move towards internationally agreed environmental objectives.
Subregional and regional
17.119. States should consider, as appropriate:
(a) Strengthening, and extending where necessary, intergovernmental
regional cooperation, the Regional Seas Programmes of UNEP, regional and
subregional fisheries organizations and regional commissions;
(b) Introduce, where necessary, coordination among relevant United
Nations and other multilateral organizations at the subregional and
regional levels, including consideration of co-location of their staff;
(c) Arrange for periodic intraregional consultations;
(d) Facilitate access to and use of expertise and technology through
relevant national bodies to subregional and regional centres and networks,
such as the Regional Centres for Marine Technology.
(b) Data and information
17.120. States should, where appropriate:
(a) Promote exchange of information on marine and coastal issues;
(b) Strengthen the capacity of international organizations to handle
information and support the development of national, subregional and
regional data and information systems, where appropriate. This could also
include networks linking countries with comparable environmental problems;
(c) Further develop existing international mechanisms such as Earthwatch
and GESAMP.
Means of implementation
(a)Financing and cost evaluation
17.121. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b)Scientific and technological means, human resource development and
capacity-building
17.122. The means of implementation outlined in the other programme areas
on marine and coastal issues, under the sections on Scientific and
technological means, human resource development and capacity-building are
entirely relevant for this programme area as well. Additionally, States
should, through international cooperation, develop a comprehensive
programme for meeting the core human resource needs in marine sciences at
all levels.
G. Sustainable development of small islands
Basis for action
17.123. Small island developing States, and islands supporting small
communities are a special case both for environment and development. They
are ecologically fragile and vulnerable. Their small size, limited
resources, geographic dispersion and isolation from markets, place them at
a disadvantage economically and prevent economies of scale. For small
island developing States the ocean and coastal environment is of strategic
importance and constitutes a valuable development resource.
17.124. Their geographic isolation has resulted in their habitation of a
comparatively large number of unique species of flora and fauna, giving
them a very high share of global biodiversity. They also have rich and
diverse cultures with special adaptations to island environments and
knowledge of the sound management of island resources.
17.125. Small island developing States have all the environmental problems
and challenges of the coastal zone concentrated in a limited land area.
They are considered extremely vulnerable to global warming and sealevel
rise, with certain small low-lying islands facing the increasing threat of
the loss of their entire national territories. Most tropical islands are
also now experiencing the more immediate impacts of increasing frequency of
cyclones, storms and hurricanes associated with climate change. These are
causing major set-backs to their socio-economic development.
17.126. Because small island development options are limited, there are
special challenges to planning for and implementing sustainable
development. Small island developing States will be constrained in meeting
these challenges without the cooperation and assistance of the
international community.
Objectives
17.127. States commit themselves to addressing the problems of sustainable
development of small island developing States. To this end, it is
necessary:
(a) To adopt and implement plans and programmes to support the
sustainable development and utilization of their marine and coastal
resources, including meeting essential human needs, maintaining
biodiversity and improving the quality of life for island people;
(b) To adopt measures which will enable small island developing States
to cope effectively, creatively and sustainably with environmental change
and to mitigate impacts and reduce the threats posed to marine and coastal
resources.
Activities
(a)Management-related activities
17.128. Small island developing States, with the assistance as appropriate
of the international community and on the basis of existing work of
national and international organizations, should:
(a) Study the special environmental and developmental characteristics
of small islands, producing an environmental profile and inventory of their
natural resources, critical marine habitats and biodiversity;
(b) Develop techniques for determining and monitoring the carrying
capacity of small islands under different development assumptions and
resource constraints;
(c) Prepare medium- and long-term plans for sustainable development that
emphasize multiple use of resources, integrate environmental considerations
with economic and sectoral planning and policies, define measures for
maintaining cultural and biological diversity and conserve endangered
species and critical marine habitats;
(d) Adapt coastal area management techniques, such as planning, siting
and environmental impact assessments, using Geographical Information
Systems (GIS), suitable to the special characteristics of small islands,
taking into account the traditional and cultural values of indigenous
people of island countries;
(e) Review the existing institutional arrangements and identify and
undertake appropriate institutional reforms essential to the effective
implementation of sustainable development plans, including intersectoral
coordination and community participation in the planning process;
(f) Implement sustainable development plans, including the review and
modification of existing unsustainable policies and practices;
(g) Based on precautionary and anticipatory approaches, design and
implement rational response strategies to address the environmental, social
and economic impacts of climate change and sealevel rise, and prepare
appropriate contingency plans;
(h) Promote environmentally sound technology for sustainable development
within small island developing States and identify technologies that should
be excluded because of their threats to essential island ecosystems.
(b)Data and information
17.129. Additional information on the geographic, environmental, cultural
and socio-economic characteristics of islands should be compiled and
assessed to assist in the planning process. Existing island databases
should be expanded and geographic information systems developed and adapted
to suit the special characteristics of islands.
(c)International and regional cooperation and coordination
17.130. Small island developing States, with the support, as appropriate,
of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global,
should develop and strengthen inter-island, regional and interregional
cooperation and information exchange, including periodic regional and
global meetings on sustainable development of small island developing
States with the first global conference on the sustainable development of
small island developing States, to be held in 1993.
17.131. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or
global, must recognize the special development requirements of small island
developing States and give adequate priority in the provision of
assistance, particularly with respect to the development and implementation
of sustainable development plans.
Means of implementation
(a)Financing and cost evaluation
17.132. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $130 million, including about $50 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technical means
17.133. Centres for the development and diffusion of scientific
information and advice on technical means and technologies appropriate to
small island developing States, especially with reference to the management
of the coastal zone, the exclusive economic zone and marine resources,
should be established or strengthened, as appropriate, on a regional basis.
(c)Human resource development
17.134. Since populations of small island developing States cannot
maintain all necessary specializations, training for integrated coastal
management and development should aim to produce cadres of managers or
scientists, engineers and coastal planners able to integrate the many
factors that need to be considered in integrated coastal management.
Resource users should be prepared to execute both management and protection
functions and to apply the polluter pays principle and support the training
of their personnel. Educational systems should be modified to meet these
needs and special training programmes developed in integrated island
management and development. Local planning should be integrated in
educational curricula of all levels and public awareness campaigns
developed with the assistance of non-governmental organizations and
indigenous coastal populations.
(d)Capacity-building
17.135. The total capacity of small island developing States will always
be limited. Existing capacity must therefore be restructured to meet
efficiently the immediate needs for sustainable development and integrated
management. At the same time, adequate and appropriate assistance from the
international community must be directed at strengthening the full range of
human resources needed on a continuous basis to implement sustainable
development plans.
17.136. New technologies that can increase the output and range of
capability of the limited human resources should be employed to increase
the capacity of very small populations to meet their needs. The
development and application of traditional knowledge to improve the
capacity of countries to implement sustainable development should be
fostered.
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Notes
1/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
in this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of any State
with respect to signature, ratification of or accession to the Convention.
2/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
in this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of States which
view the Convention as having a unified character.
3/ Nothing in the programme areas of this chapter should be interpreted
as prejudicing the rights of the States involved in a dispute of
sovereignty or in the delimitation of the maritime areas concerned.
END OF CHAPTER 17
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============RRojas Research Unit/1996=================================
