A21- WATER RESOURCES
Distr.
GENERAL
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II)
13 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
Chapter 18
PROTECTION OF THE QUALITY AND SUPPLY OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES:
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO THE DEVELOPMENT,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF WATER RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
18.1. Freshwater resources are an essential component of the Earth's
hydrosphere and an indispensable part of all terrestrial ecosystems. The
freshwater environment is characterized by the hydrological cycle,
including floods and droughts, which in some regions have become more
extreme and dramatic in their consequences. Global climate change and
atmospheric pollution could also have an impact on freshwater resources and
their availability and, through sea-level rise, threaten low-lying coastal
areas and small island ecosystems.
18.2. Water is needed in all aspects of life. The general objective is to
make certain that adequate supplies of water of good quality are maintained
for the entire population of this planet, while preserving the
hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ecosystems, adapting
human activities within the capacity limits of nature and combating vectors
of water-related diseases. Innovative technologies, including the
improvement of indigenous technologies, are needed to fully utilize limited
water resources and to safeguard those resources against pollution.
18.3. The widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and aggravated
pollution of freshwater resources in many world regions, along with the
progressive encroachment of incompatible activities, demand integrated
water resources planning and management. Such integration must cover all
types of interrelated freshwater bodies, including both surface water and
groundwater, and duly consider water quantity and quality aspects. The
multisectoral nature of water resources development in the context of
socio-economic development must be recognized, as well as the
multi-interest utilization of water resources for water supply and
sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development, hydropower
generation, inland fisheries, transportation, recreation, low and flat
lands management and other activities. Rational water utilization schemes
for the development of surface and underground water-supply sources and
other potential sources have to be supported by concurrent water
conservation and wastage minimization measures. Priority,
however, must be accorded to flood prevention and control measures, as well
as sedimentation control, where required.
18.4. Transboundary water resources and their use are of great importance
to riparian States. In this connection, cooperation among those States may
be desirable in conformity with existing agreements and/or other relevant
arrangements, taking into account the interests of all riparian States
concerned.
18.5. The following programme areas are proposed for the freshwater
sector:
(a) Integrated water resources development and management;
(b) Water resources assessment;
(c) Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic
ecosystems;
(d) Drinking-water supply and sanitation;
(e) Water and sustainable urban development;
(f) Water for sustainable food production and rural development;
(g) Impacts of climate change on water resources.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Integrated water resources development and management
Basis for action
18.6. The extent to which water resources development contributes to
economic productivity and social well-being is not usually appreciated,
although all social and economic activities rely heavily on the supply and
quality of freshwater. As populations and economic activities grow, many
countries are rapidly reaching conditions of water scarcity or facing
limits to economic development. Water demands are increasing rapidly, with
70-80 per cent required for irrigation, less than 20 per cent for industry
and a mere 6 per cent for domestic consumption. The holistic management of
freshwater as a finite and vulnerable resource, and the integration of
sectoral water plans and programmes within the framework of national
economic and social policy, are of paramount importance for action in the
1990s and beyond. The fragmentation of responsibilities for water
resources development among sectoral agencies is proving, however, to be an
even greater impediment to promoting integrated water management than had
been anticipated. Effective implementation and coordination mechanisms are
required.
Objectives
18.7. The overall objective is to satisfy the freshwater needs of all
countries for their sustainable development.
18.8. Integrated water resources management is based on the perception of
water as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource and a social
and economic good, whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its
utilization. To this end, water resources have to be protected, taking
into account the functioning of aquatic ecosystems and the perenniality of
the resource, in order to satisfy and reconcile needs for water in human
activities. In developing and using water resources, priority has to be
given to the satisfaction of basic needs and the safeguarding of
ecosystems. Beyond these requirements, however, water users should be
charged appropriately.
18.9. Integrated water resources management, including the integration of
land- and water-related aspects, should be carried out at the level of the
catchment basin or sub-basin. Four principal objectives should be pursued,
as follows:
(a) To promote a dynamic, interactive, iterative and multisectoral
approach to water resources management, including the identification and
protection of potential sources of freshwater supply, that integrates
technological, socio-economic, environmental and human health
considerations;
(b) To plan for the sustainable and rational utilization,
protection, conservation and management of water resources based on
community needs and priorities within the framework of national economic
development policy;
(c) To design, implement and evaluate projects and programmes that
are both economically efficient and socially appropriate within clearly
defined strategies, based on an approach of full public participation,
including that of women, youth, indigenous people and local communities in
water management policy-making and decision-making;
(d) To identify and strengthen or develop, as required, in
particular
in developing countries, the appropriate institutional, legal and financial
mechanisms to ensure that water policy and its implementation are a
catalyst
for sustainable social progress and economic growth.
18.10. In the case of transboundary water resources, there is a need for
riparian States to formulate water resources strategies, prepare water
resources action programmes and consider, where appropriate, the
harmonization of those strategies and action programmes.
18.11. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the
following targets:
(a) By the year 2000:
(i) To have designed and initiated costed and targeted national
action programmes, and to have put in place appropriate
institutional structures and legal instruments;
(ii) To have established efficient water-use programmes to attain
sustainable resource utilization patterns;
(b) By the year 2025:
(i) To have achieved subsectoral targets of all freshwater programme
areas.
It is understood that the fulfilment of the targets quantified in (i) and
(ii) above will depend upon new and additional financial resources that
will be made available to developing countries in accordance with the
relevant provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/228.
Activities
18.12. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement
the following activities to improve integrated water resources management:
(a) Formulation of costed and targeted national action plans and
investment programmes;
(b) Integration of measures for the protection and conservation of
potential sources of freshwater supply, including the inventorying of water
resources, with land-use planning, forest resource utilization, protection
of mountain slopes and riverbanks and other relevant development and
conservation activities;
(c) Development of interactive databases, forecasting models,
economic planning models and methods for water management and planning,
including environmental impact assessment methods;
(d) Optimization of water resources allocation under physical and
socio-economic constraints;
(e) Implementation of allocation decisions through demand
management, pricing mechanisms and regulatory measures;
(f) Flood and drought management, including risk analysis and
environmental and social impact assessment;
(g) Promotion of schemes for rational water use through public
awareness-raising, educational programmes and levying of water tariffs and
other economic instruments;
(h) Mobilization of water resources, particularly in arid and
semi-arid areas;
(i) Promotion of international scientific research cooperation on
freshwater resources;
(j) Development of new and alternative sources of water-supply such
as sea-water desalination, artificial groundwater recharge, use of
marginal-quality water, waste-water reuse and water recycling;
(k) Integration of water (including surface and underground water
resources) quantity and quality management;
(l) Promotion of water conservation through improved water-use
efficiency and wastage minimization schemes for all users, including the
development of water-saving devices;
(m) Support to water-users groups to optimize local water resources
management;
(n) Development of public participatory techniques and their
implementation in decision-making, particularly the enhancement of the role
of women in water resources planning and management;
(o) Development and strengthening, as appropriate, of cooperation,
including mechanisms where appropriate, at all levels concerned, namely:
(i) At the lowest appropriate level, delegation of water resources
management, generally, to such a level, in accordance with
national legislation, including decentralization of government
services to local authorities, private enterprises and
communities;
(ii) At the national level, integrated water resources planning and
management in the framework of the national planning process
and, where appropriate, establishment of independent regulation
and monitoring of freshwater, based on national legislation and
economic measures;
(iii) At the regional level, consideration, where appropriate, of the
harmonization of national strategies and action programmes;
(iv) At the global level, improved delineation of responsibilities,
division of labour and coordination of international
organizations and programmes, including facilitating discussions
and sharing of experiences in areas related to water resources
management;
(p) Dissemination of information, including operational guidelines,
and promotion of education for water users, including the consideration by
the United Nations of a World Water Day.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.13. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $115 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.14. The development of interactive databases, forecasting methods and
economic planning models appropriate to the task of managing water
resources in an efficient and sustainable manner will require the
application of new techniques such as geographical information systems and
expert systems to gather, assimilate, analyse and display multisectoral
information and to optimize decision-making. In addition, the development
of new and alternative sources of water-supply and low-cost water
technologies will require innovative applied research. This will involve
the transfer, adaptation and diffusion of new techniques and technology
among developing countries, as well as the development of endogenous
capacity, for the purpose of being able to deal with the added dimension of
integrating engineering, economic, environmental and social aspects of
water resources management and predicting the effects in terms of human
impact.
18.15. Pursuant to the recognition of water as a social and economic good,
the various available options for charging water users (including domestic,
urban, industrial and agricultural water-user groups) have to be further
evaluated and field-tested. Further development is required for economic
instruments that take into account opportunity costs and environmental
externalities. Field studies on the willingness to pay should be conducted
in rural and urban situations.
18.16. Water resources development and management should be planned in an
integrated manner, taking into account long-term planning needs as well as
those with narrower horizons, that is to say, they should incorporate
environmental, economic and social considerations based on the principle of
sustainability; include the requirements of all users as well as those
relating to the prevention and mitigation of water-related hazards; and
constitute an integral part of the socio-economic development planning
process. A prerequisite for the sustainable management of water as a
scarce vulnerable resource is the obligation to acknowledge in all planning
and development its full costs. Planning considerations should reflect
benefits investment, environmental protection and operation costs, as well
as the opportunity costs reflecting the most valuable alternative use of
water. Actual charging need not necessarily burden all beneficiaries with
the consequences of those considerations. Charging mechanisms should,
however, reflect as far as possible both the true cost of water when used
as an economic good and the ability of the communities to pay.
18.17. The role of water as a social, economic and life-sustaining good
should be reflected in demand management mechanisms and implemented through
water conservation and reuse, resource assessment and financial
instruments.
18.18. The setting afresh of priorities for private and public investment
strategies should take into account (a) maximum utilization of existing
projects, through maintenance, rehabilitation and optimal operation; (b)
new or alternative clean technologies; and (c) environmentally and socially
benign hydropower.
(c) Human resources development
18.19. The delegation of water resources management to the lowest
appropriate level necessitates educating and training water management
staff at all levels and ensuring that women participate equally in the
education and training programmes. Particular emphasis has to be placed on
the introduction of public participatory techniques, including enhancement
of the role of women, youth, indigenous people and local communities.
Skills related to various water management functions have to be developed
by municipal government and water authorities, as well as in the private
sector, local/national non-governmental organizations, cooperatives,
corporations and other water-user groups. Education of the public
regarding the importance of water and its proper management is also needed.
18.20. To implement these principles, communities need to have adequate
capacities. Those who establish the framework for water development and
management at any level, whether international, national or local, need to
ensure that the means exist to build those capacities. The means will vary
from case to case. They usually include:
(a) Awareness-creation programmes, including mobilizing commitment
and support at all levels and initiating global and local action to promote
such programmes;
(b) Training of water managers at all levels so that they have an
appropriate understanding of all the elements necessary for their
decision-making;
(c) Strengthening of training capacities in developing countries;
(d) Appropriate training of the necessary professionals, including
extension workers;
(e) Improvement of career structures;
(f) Sharing of appropriate knowledge and technology, both for the
collection of data and for the implementation of planned development
including non-polluting technologies and the knowledge needed to extract
the best performance from the existing investment system.
(d) Capacity-building
18.21. Institutional capacity for implementing integrated water management
should be reviewed and developed when there is a clear demand. Existing
administrative structures will often be quite capable of achieving local
water resources management, but the need may arise for new institutions
based upon the perspective, for example, of river catchment areas, district
development councils and local community committees. Although water is
managed at various levels in the socio-political system, demand-driven
management requires the development of water-related institutions at
appropriate levels, taking into account the need for integration with
land-use management.
18.22. In creating the enabling environment for lowest-appropriate-level
management, the role of Government includes mobilization of financial and
human resources, legislation, standard-setting and other regulatory
functions, monitoring and assessment of the use of water and land
resources, and creating of opportunities for public participation.
International agencies and donors have an important role to play in
providing support to developing countries in creating the required enabling
environment for integrated water resources management. This should
include, as appropriate, donor support to local levels in developing
countries, including community-based institutions, non-governmental
organizations and women's groups.
B. Water resources assessment
Basis for action
18.23. Water resources assessment, including the identification of
potential sources of freshwater supply, comprises the continuing
determinatiïn of sources, extent, dependability and quality of water
resources and of the human activities that affect those resources. Such
assessment constitutes the practical basis for their sustainable management
and a prerequisite for evaluation of the possibilities for their
development. There is, however, growing concern that at a time when more
precise and reliable information is needed about water resources,
hydrologic services and related bodies are less able than before to provide
this information, especially information on groundwater and water quality.
Major impediments are the lack of financial resources for water resources
assessment, the fragmented nature of hydrologic services and the
insufficient numbers of qualified staff. At the same time, the advancing
technology for data capture and management is increasingly difficult to
access for developing countries. Establishment of national databases is,
however, vital to water resources assessment and to mitigation of the
effects of floods, droughts, desertification and pollution.
Objectives
18.24. Based upon the Mar del Plata Action Plan, this programme area has
been extended into the 1990s and beyond with the overall objective of
ensuring the assessment and forecasting of the quantity and quality of
water resources, in order to estimate the total quantity of water resources
available and their future supply potential, to determine their current
quality status, to predict possible conflicts between supply and demand and
to provide a scientific database for rational water resources utilization.
18.25. Five specific objectives have been set accordingly, as follows:
(a) To make available to all countries water resources assessment
technology that is appropriate to their needs, irrespective of their level
of development, including methods for the impact assessment of climate
change on freshwaters;
(b) To have all countries, according to their financial means,
allocate to water resources assessment financial resources in line with the
economic and social needs for water resources data;
(c) To ensure that the assessment information is fully utilized in
the development of water management policies;
(d) To have all countries establish the institutional arrangements
needed to ensure the efficient collection, processing, storage, retrieval
and dissemination to users of information about the quality and quantity of
available water resources at the level of catchments and groundwater
aquifers in an integrated manner;
(e) To have sufficient numbers of appropriately qualified and
capable staff recruited and retained by water resources assessment agencies
and provided with the training and retraining they will need to carry out
their responsibilities successfully.
18.26. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including cooperation
with the United Nations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate,
could set the following targets:
(a) By the year 2000, to have studied in detail the feasibility of
installing water resources assessment services;
(b) As a long-term target, to have fully operational services
available based upon high-density hydrometric networks.
Activities
18.27. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could undertake
the following activities:
(a) Institutional framework:
(i) Establish appropriate policy frameworks and national priorities;
(ii) Establish and strengthen the institutional capabilities of
countries, including legislative and regulatory arrangements,
that are required to ensure the adequate assessment of their
water resources and the provision of flood and drought
forecasting services;
(iii) Establish and maintain effective cooperation at the national
level between the various agencies responsible for the
collection, storage and analysis of hydrologic data;
(iv) Cooperate in the assessment of transboundary water resources,
subject to the prior agreement of each riparian State concerned;
(b) Data systems:
(i) Review existing data-collection networks and assess their
adequacy, including those that provide real-time data for flood
and drought forecasting;
(ii) Improve networks to meet accepted guidelines for the provision
of data on water quantity and quality for surface and
groundwater, as well as relevant land-use data;
(iii) Apply standards and other means to ensure data compatibility;
(iv) Upgrade facilities and procedures used to store, process and
analyse hydrologic data and make such data and the forecasts
derived from them available to potential users;
(v) Establish databases on the availability of all types of
hydrologic data at the national level;
(vi) Implement "data rescue" operations, for example, establishment
of national archives of water resources;
(vii) Implement appropriate well-tried techniques for the processing
of hydrologic data;
(viii) Derive area-related estimates from point hydrologic data;
(ix) Assimilate remotely sensed data and the use, where appropriate,
of geographical information systems;
(c) Data dissemination:
(i) Identify the need for water resources data for various planning
purposes;
(ii) Analyse and present data and information on water resources in
the forms required for planning and management of countries'
socio-economic development and for use in environmental
protection strategies and in the design and operation of
specific water-related projects;
(iii) Provide forecasts and warnings of flood and drought to the
general public and civil defence;
(d) Research and development:
(i) Establish or strengthen research and development programmes at
the national, subregional, regional and international levels in
support of water resources assessment activities;
(ii) Monitor research and development activities to ensure that they
make full use of local expertise and other local resources and
that they are appropriate for the needs of the country or
countries concerned.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.28. The Conference secretariat has estimated the everage total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $355 million, including about $145 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.29. Important research needs include (a) development of global
hydrologic models in support of analysis of climate change impact and of
macroscale water resources assessment; (b) closing of the gap between
terrestrial hydrology and ecology at different scales, including the
critical water-related processes behind loss of vegetation and land
degradation and its restoration; and (c) study of the key processes in
water-quality genesis, closing the gap between hydrologic flows and
biogeochemical processes. The research models should build upon hydrologic
balance studies and also include the consumptive use of water. This
approach should also, when appropriate, be applied at the catchment level.
18.30. Water resources assessment necessitates the strengthening of
existing systems for technology transfer, adaptation and diffusion, and the
development of new technology for use under field conditions, as well as
the development of endogenous capacity. Prior to inaugurating the above
activities, it is necessary to prepare catalogues of the water resources
information held by government services, the private sector, educational
institutes, consultants, local water-use organizations and others.
(c) Human resource development
18.31. Water resources assessment requires the establishment and
maintenance of a body of well-trained and motivated staff sufficient in
number to undertake the above activities. Education and training
programmes designed to ensure an adequate supply of these trained personnel
should be established or strengthened at the local, national, subregional
or regional level. In addition, the provision of attractive terms of
employment and career paths for professional and technical staff should be
encouraged. Human resource needs should be monitored periodically,
including all levels of employment. Plans have to be established to meet
those needs through education and training opportunities and international
programmes of courses and conferences.
18.32. Because well-trained people are particularly important to water
resources assessment and hydrologic forecasting, personnel matters should
receive special attention in this area. The aim should be to attract and
retain personnel to work on water resources assessment who are sufficient
in number and adequate in their level of education to ensure the effective
implementation of the activities that are planned. Education may be called
for at both the national and the international level, with adequate terms
of employment being a national responsibility.
18.33. Recommended actions include:
(a) Identifying education and training needs geared to the specific
requirements of countries;
(b) Establishing and strengthening education and training programmes
on water-related topics, within an environmental and developmental context,
for all categories of staff involved in water resources assessment
activities, using advanced educational technology, where appropriate, and
involving both men and women;
(c) Developing sound recruitment, personnel and pay policies for
staff of national and local water agencies.
(d) Capacity-building
18.34. The conduct of water resources assessment on the basis of
operational national hydrometric networks requires an enabling environment
at all levels. The following national support action is necessary for
enhanced national capacities:
(a) Review of the legislative and regulatory basis of water
resources assessment;
(b) Facilitation of close collaboration among water sector agencies,
particularly between information producers and users;
(c) Implementation of water management policies based upon realistic
appraisals of water resources conditions and trends;
(d) Strengthening of the managerial capabilities of water-user
groups, including women, youth, indigenous people and local communities, to
improve water-use efficiency at the local level.
C. Protection of water resources, water
quality and aquatic ecosystems
Basis for action
18.35. Freshwater is a unitary resource. Long-term development of global
freshwater requires holistic management of resources and a recognition of
the interconnectedness of the elements related to freshwater and freshwater
quality. There are few regions of the world that are still exempt from
problems of loss of potential sources of freshwater supply, degraded water
quality and pollution of surface and groundwater sources. Major problems
affecting the water quality of rivers and lakes arise, in variable order of
importance according to different situations, from inadequately treated
domestic sewage, inadequate controls on the discharges of industrial waste
waters, loss and destruction of catchment areas, ill-considered siting of
industrial plants, deforestation, uncontrolled shifting cultivation and
poor agricultural practices. This gives rise to the leaching of nutrients
and pesticides. Aquatic ecosystems are disturbed and living freshwater
resources are threatened. Under certain circumstances, aquatic ecosystems
are also affected by agricultural water resource development projects such
as dams, river diversions, water installations and irrigation schemes.
Erosion, sedimentation, deforestation and desertification have led to
increased land degradation, and the creation of reservoirs has, in some
cases, resulted in adverse effects on ecosystems. Many of these problems
have arisen from a development model that is environmentally destructive
and from a lack of public awareness and education about surface and
groundwater resource protection. Ecological and human health effects are
the measurable consequences, although the means to monitor them are
inadequate or non-existent in many countries. There is a widespread lack
of perception of the linkages between the development, management, use and
treatment of water resources and aquatic ecosystems. A preventive
approach, where appropriate, is crucial to the avoiding of costly
subsequent measures to rehabilitate, treat and develop new water supplies.
Objectives
18.36. The complex interconnectedness of freshwater systems demands that
freshwater management be holistic (taking a catchment management approach)
and based on a balanced consideration of the needs of people and the
environment. The Mar del Plata Action Plan has already recognized the
intrinsic linkage between water resource development projects and their
significant physical, chemical, biological, health and socio-economic
repercussions. The overall environmental health objective was set as
follows: "to evaluate the consequences which the various users of water
have on the environment, to support measures aimed at controlling
water-related diseases, and to protect ecosystems". 1/
18.37. The extent and severity of contamination of unsaturated zones and
aquifers have long been underestimated owing to the relative
inaccessibility of aquifers and the lack of reliable information on aquifer
systems. The protection of groundwater is therefore an essential element
of water resource management.
18.38. Three objectives will have to be pursued concurrently to integrate
water-quality elements into water resource management:
(a) Maintenance of ecosystem integrity, according to a management
principle of preserving aquatic ecosystems, including living resources, and
of effectively protecting them from any form of degradation on a drainage
basin basis;
(b) Public health protection, a task requiring not only the
provision of safe drinking-water but also the control of disease vectors in
the aquatic environment;
(c) Human resources development, a key to capacity-building and a
prerequisite for implementing water-quality management.
18.39. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations
and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the following
targets:
(a) To identify the surface and groundwater resources that could be
developed for use on a sustainable basis and other major developable
water-dependent resources and, simultaneously, to initiate programmes for
the protection, conservation and rational use of these resources on a
sustainable basis;
(b) To identify all potential sources of water-supply and prepared
outlines for their protection, conservation and rational use;
(c) To initiate effective water pollution prevention and control
programmes, based on an appropriate mixture of pollution
reduction-at-source strategies, environmental impact assessments and
enforceable standards for major point-source discharges and high-risk
non-point sources, commensurate with their socio-economic development;
(d) To participate, as far as appropriate, in international
water-quality monitoring and management programmes such as the Global Water
Quality Monitoring Programme (GEMS/WATER), the UNEP Environmentally Sound
Management of Inland Waters (EMINWA), the FAO regional inland fishery
bodies, and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention);
(e) To reduce the prevalence of water-associated diseases, starting
with the eradication of dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease) and
onchocerciasis (river blindness) by the year 2000;
(f) To establish, according to capacities and needs, biological,
health, physical and chemical quality criteria for all water bodies
(surface and groundwater), with a view to an ongoing improvement of water
quality;
(g) To adopt an integrated approach to environmentally sustainable
management of water resources, including the protection of aquatic
ecosystems and freshwater living resources;
(h) To put in place strategies for the environmentally sound
management of freshwaters and related coastal ecosystems, including
consideration of fisheries, aquaculture, animal grazing, agricultural
activities and biodiversity.
Activities
18.40. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including United Nations
and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the
following activities:
(a) Water resources protection and conservation:
(i) Establishment and strengthening of technical and institutional
capacities to identify and protect potential sources of
water-supply within all sectors of society;
(ii) Identification of potential sources of water-supply and
preparation of national profiles;
(iii) Preparation of national plans for water resources protection and
conservation;
(iv) Rehabilitation of important, but degraded, catchment areas,
particularly on small islands;
(v) Strengthening of administrative and legislative measures to
prevent encroachment on existing and potentially usable catchment
areas;
(b) Water pollution prevention and control:
(i) Application of the "polluter pays" principle, where appropriate,
to all kinds of sources, including on-site and off-site
sanitation;
(ii) Promotion of the construction of treatment facilities for domestic
sewage and industrial effluents and the development of appropriate
technologies, taking into account sound traditional and indigenous
practices;
(iii) Establishment of standards for the discharge of effluents and for
the receiving waters;
(iv) Introduction of the precautionary approach in water-quality
management, where appropriate, with a focus on pollution
minimization and prevention through use of new technologies,
product and process change, pollution reduction at source and
effluent reuse, recycling and recovery, treatment and
environmentally safe disposal;
(v) Mandatory environmental impact assessment of all major water
resource development projects potentially impairing water quality
and aquatic ecosystems, combined with the delineation of
appropriate remedial measures and a strengthened control of new
industrial installations, solid waste landfills and infrastructure
development projects;
(vi) Use of risk assessment and risk management in reaching decisions in
this area and ensuring compliance with those decisions;
(vii) Identification and application of best environmental practices at
reasonable cost to avoid diffuse pollution, namely, through a
limited, rational and planned use of nitrogenous fertilizers and
other agrochemicals (pesticides, herbicides) in agricultural
practices;
(viii) Encouragement and promotion of the use of adequately treated and
purified waste waters in agriculture, aquaculture, industry and
other sectors;
(c) Development and application of clean technology:
(i) Control of industrial waste discharges, including low-waste
production technologies and water recirculation, in an integrated
manner and through application of precautionary measures derived
from a broad-based life-cycle analysis;
(ii) Treatment of municipal waste water for safe reuse in agriculture
and aquaculture;
(iii) Development of biotechnology, inter alia, for waste treatment,
production of biofertilizers and other activities;
(iv) Development of appropriate methods for water pollution control,
taking into account sound traditional and indigenous practices;
(d) Groundwater protection:
(i) Development of agricultural practices that do not degrade
groundwaters;
(ii) Application of the necessary measures to mitigate saline intrusion
into aquifers of small islands and coastal plains as a consequence
of sealevel rise or overexploitation of coastal aquifers;
(iii) Prevention of aquifer pollution through the regulation of toxic
substances that permeate the ground and the establishment of
protection zones in groundwater recharge and abstraction areas;
(iv) Design and management of landfills based upon sound hydrogeologic
information and impact assessment, using the best practicable and
best available technology;
(v) Promotion of measures to improve the safety and integrity of wells
and well-head areas to reduce intrusion of biological pathogens and
hazardous chemicals into aquifers at well sites;
(vi) Water-quality monitoring, as needed, of surface and groundwaters
potentially affected by sites storing toxic and hazardous
materials;
(e) Protection of aquatic ecosystems:
(i) Rehabilitation of polluted and degraded water bodies to restore
aquatic habitats and ecosystems;
(ii) Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural lands and for other
users, taking into account equivalent action for the protection
and use of groundwater resources important for agricultural
productivity and for the biodiversity of the tropics;
(iii) Conservation and protection of wetlands (owing to their ecological
and habitat importance for many species), taking into account
social and economic factors;
(iv) Control of noxious aquatic species that may destroy some other
water species;
(f) Protection of freshwater living resources:
(i) Control and monitoring of water quality to allow for the
sustainable development of inland fisheries;
(ii) Protection of ecosystems from pollution and degradation for the
development of freshwater aquaculture projects;
(g) Monitoring and surveillance of water resources and waters
receiving wastes:
(i) Establishment of networks for the monitoring and continuous
surveillance of waters receiving wastes and of point and diffuse
sources of pollution;
(ii) Promotion and extension of the application of environmental impact
assessments of geographical information systems;
(iii) Surveillance of pollution sources to improve compliance with
standards and regulations and to regulate the issue of discharge
permits;
(iv) Monitoring of the utilization of chemicals in agriculture that may
have an adverse environmental effect;
(v) Rational land use to prevent land degradation, erosion and
siltation of lakes and other water bodies;
(h) Development of national and international legal instruments that
may be required to protect the quality of water resources, as appropriate,
particularly for:
(i) Monitoring and control of pollution and its effects in national
and transboundary waters;
(ii) Control of long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants;
(iii) Control of accidental and/or deliberate spills in national and/or
transboundary water bodies;
(iv) Environmental impact assessment.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$1 billion, including about $340 million from the international community
on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.42. States should undertake cooperative research projects to develop
solutions to technical problems that are appropriate for the conditions in
each watershed or country. States should consider strengthening and
developing national research centres linked through networks and supported
by regional water research institutes. The North-South twinning of
research centres and field studies by international water research
institutions should be actively promoted. It is important that a minimum
percentage of funds for water resource development projects is allocated to
research and development, particularly in externally funded projects.
18.43. Monitoring and assessment of complex aquatic systems often require
multidisciplinary studies involving several institutions and scientists in
a joint programme. International water-quality programmes, such as
GEMS/WATER, should be oriented towards the water-quality of developing
countries. User-friendly software and Geographical Information Systems
(GIS) and Global Resource Information Database (GRID) methods should be
developed for the handling, analysis and interpretation of monitoring data
and for the preparation of management strategies.
(c) Human resource development
18.44. Innovative approaches should be adopted for professional and
managerial staff training in order to cope with changing needs and
challenges. Flexibility and adaptability regarding emerging water pollution
issues should be developed. Training activities should be undertaken
periodically at all levels within the organizations responsible for
water-quality management and innovative teaching techniques adopted for
specific aspects of water-quality monitoring and control, including
development of training skills, in-service training, problem-solving
workshops and refresher training courses.
18.45. Suitable approaches include the strengthening and improvement of
the human resource capabilities of local Governments in managing water
protection, treatment and use, particularly in urban areas, and the
establishment of national and regional technical and engineering courses on
the subjects of water-quality protection and control at existing schools
and education/training courses on water resources protection and
conservation for laboratory and field technicians, women and other
water-user groups.
(d) Capacity-building
18.46. The effective protection of water resources and ecosystems from
pollution requires considerable upgrading of most countries' present
capacities. Water-quality management programmes require a certain minimum
infrastructure and staff to identify and implement technical solutions and
to enforce regulatory action. One of the key problems today and for the
future is the sustained operation and maintenance of these facilities. In
order not to allow resources gained from previous investments to
deteriorate further, immediate action is required in a number of areas.
D. Drinking-water supply and sanitation
Basis for action
18.47. Safe water-supplies and environmental sanitation are vital for
protecting the environment, improving health and alleviating poverty. Safe
water is also crucial to many traditional and cultural activities. An
estimated 80 per cent of all diseases and over one third of deaths in
developing countries are caused by the consumption of contaminated water,
and on average as much as one tenth of each person's productive time is
sacrificed to water-related diseases. Concerted efforts during the 1980s
brought water and sanitation services to hundreds of millions of the
world's poorest people. The most outstanding of these efforts was the
launching in 1981 of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation
Decade, which resulted from the Mar del Plata Action Plan adopted by the
United Nations Water Conference in 1977. The commonly agreed premise was
that "all peoples, whatever their stage of development and their social and
economic conditions, have the right to have access to drinking water in
quantities and of a quality equal to their basic needs". 2/ The target of
the Decade was to provide safe drinking-water and sanitation to underserved
urban and rural areas by 1990, but even the unprecedented progress achieved
during the Decade was not enough. One in three people in the developing
world still lacks these two most basic requirements for health and dignity.
It is also recognized that human excreta and sewage are important causes of
the deterioration of water-quality in developing countries, and the
introduction of available technologies, including appropriate technologies,
and the construction of sewage treatment facilities could bring significant
improvement.
Objectives
18.48. The New Delhi Statement (adopted at the Global Consultation on Safe
Water and Sanitation for the 1990s, which was held in New Delhi from 10 to
14 September 1990) formalized the need to provide, on a sustainable basis,
access to safe water in sufficient quantities and proper sanitation for
all, emphasizing the "some for all rather than more for some" approach.
Four guiding principles provide for the programme objectives:
(a) Protection of the environment and safeguarding of health through
the integrated management of water resources and liquid and solid wastes;
(b) Institutional reforms promoting an integrated approach and
including changes in procedures, attitudes and behaviour, and the full
participation of women at all levels in sector institutions;
(c) Community management of services, backed by measures to strengthen
local institutions in implementing and sustaining water and sanitation
programmes;
(d) Sound financial practices, achieved through better management of
existing assets, and widespread use of appropriate technologies.
18.49. Past experience has shown that specific targets should be set by
each individual country. At the World Summit for Children, in September
1990, heads of State or Government called for both universal access to
water-supply and sanitation and the eradication of guinea worm disease by
1995. Even for the more realistic target of achieving full coverage in
water-supply by 2025, it is estimated that annual investments must reach
double the current levels. One realistic strategy to meet present and
future needs, therefore, is to develop lower-cost but adequate services
that can be implemented and sustained at the community level.
Activities
18.50. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement
the following activities:
(a) Environment and health:
(i) Establishment of protected areas for sources of drinking-water
supply;
(ii) Sanitary disposal of excreta and sewage, using appropriate systems
to treat waste waters in urban and rural areas;
(iii) Expansion of urban and rural water-supply and development and
expansion of rainwater catchment systems, particularly on small
islands, in addition to the reticulated water-supply system;
(iv) Building and expansion, where appropriate, of sewage treatment
facilities and drainage systems;
(v) Treatment and safe reuse of domestic and industrial waste waters
in urban and rural areas;
(vi) Control of water-associated diseases;
(b) People and institutions:
(i) Strengthening of the functioning of Governments in water resources
management and, at the same time, giving of full recognition to
the role of local authorities;
(ii) Encouragement of water development and management based on a
participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy
makers at all levels;
(iii) Application of the principle that decisions are to be taken at the
lowest appropriate level, with public consultation and involvement
of users in the planning and implementation of water projects;
(iv) Human resource development at all levels, including special
programmes for women;
(v) Broad-based education programmes, with particular emphasis on
hygiene, local management and risk reduction;
(vi) International support mechanisms for programme funding,
implementation and follow-up;
(c) National and community management:
(i) Support and assistance to communities in managing their own
systems on a sustainable basis;
(ii) Encouragement of the local population, especially women, youth,
indigenous people and local communities, in water management;
(iii) Linkages between national water plans and community management of
local waters;
(iv) Integration of community management of water within the context of
overall planning;
(v) Promotion of primary health and environmental care at the local
level, including training for local communities in appropriate
water management techniques and primary health care;
(vi) Assistance to service agencies in becoming more cost-effective and
responsive to consumer needs;
(vii) Providing of more attention to underserved rural and low-income
periurban areas;
(viii) Rehabilitation of defective systems, reduction of wastage and safe
reuse of water and waste water;
(ix) Programmes for rational water use and ensured operation and
maintenance;
(x) Research and development of appropriate technical solutions;
(xi) Substantially increase urban treatment capacity commensurate with
increasing loads;
(d) Awareness creation and public information/participation:
(i) Strengthening of sector monitoring and information management at
subnational and national levels;
(ii) Annual processing, analysis and publication of monitoring results
at national and local levels as a sector management and
advocacy/awareness creation tool;
(iii) Use of limited sector indicators at regional and global levels to
promote the sector and raise funds;
(iv) Improvement of sector coordination, planning and implementation,
with the assistance of improved monitoring and information
management, to increase the sector's absorptive capacity,
particularly in community-based self-help projects.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.51. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $20 billion, including about $7.4 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.52. To ensure the feasibility, acceptability and sustainability of
planned water-supply services, adopted technologies should be responsive to
the needs and constraints imposed by the conditions of the community
concerned. Thus, design criteria will involve technical, health, social,
economic, provincial, institutional and environmental factors that
determine the characteristics, magnitude and cost of the planned system.
Relevant international support programmes should address the developing
countries concerning, inter alia:
(a) Pursuit of low-cost scientific and technological means, as far as
practicable;
(b) Utilization of traditional and indigenous practices, as far as
practicable, to maximize and sustain local involvement;
(c) Assistance to country-level technical/scientific institutes to
facilitate curricula development to support fields critical to the water
and sanitation sector.
(c) Human resource development
18.53. To effectively plan and manage water-supply and sanitation at the
national, provincial, district and community level, and to utilize funds
most effectively, trained professional and technical staff must be
developed within each country in sufficient numbers. To do this, countries
must establish manpower development plans, taking into consideration
present requirements and planned developments. Subsequently, the
development and performance of country-level training institutions should
be enhanced so that they can play a pivotal role in capacity-building. It
is also important that countries provide adequate training for women in the
sustainable maintenance of equipment, water resources management and
environmental sanitation.
(d) Capacity-building
18.54. The implementation of water-supply and sanitation programmes is a
national responsibility. To varying degrees, responsibility for the
implementation of projects and the operating of systems should be delegated
to all administrative levels down to the community and individual served.
This also means that national authorities, together with the agencies and
bodies of the United Nations system and other external support agencies
providing support to national programmes, should develop mechanisms and
procedures to collaborate at all levels. This is particularly important if
full advantage is to be taken of community-based approaches and
self-reliance as tools for sustainability. This will entail a high degree
of community participation, involving women, in the conception, planning,
decision-making, implementation and evaluation connected with projects for
domestic water-supply and sanitation.
18.55. Overall national capacity-building at all administrative levels,
involving institutional development, coordination, human resources,
community participation, health and hygiene education and literacy, has to
be developed according to its fundamental connection both with any efforts
to improve health and socio-economic development through water-supply and
sanitation and with their impact on the human environment.
Capacity-building should therefore be one of the underlying keys in
implementation strategies. Institutional capacity-building should be
considered to have an importance equal to that of the sector supplies and
equipment component so that funds can be directed to both. This can be
undertaken at the planning or programme/project formulation stage,
accompanied by a clear definition of objectives and targets. In this
regard, technical cooperation among developing countries owing to their
available wealth of information and experience and the need to avoid
"reinventing the wheel", is crucial. Such a course has proved
cost-effective in many country projects already.
E. Water and sustainable urban development
Basis for action
18.56. Early in the next century, more than half of the world's population
will be living in urban areas. By the year 2025, that proportion will have
risen to 60 per cent, comprising some 5 billion people. Rapid urban
population growth and industrialization are putting severe strains on the
water resources and environmental protection capabilities of many cities.
Special attention needs to be given to the growing effects of urbanization
on water demands and usage and to the critical role played by local and
municipal authorities in managing the supply, use and overall treatment of
water, particularly in developing countries for which special support is
needed. Scarcity of freshwater resources and the escalating costs of
developing new resources have a considerable impact on national industrial,
agricultural and human settlement development and economic growth. Better
management of urban water resources, including the elimination of
unsustainable consumption patterns, can make a substantial contribution to
the alleviation of poverty and improvement of the health and quality of
life of the urban and rural poor. A high proportion of large urban
agglomerations are located around estuaries and in coastal zones. Such an
arrangement leads to pollution from municipal and industrial discharges
combined with overexploitation of available water resources and threatens
the marine environment and the supply of freshwater resources.
Objectives
18.57. The development objective of this programme is to support local and
central Governments' efforts and capacities to sustain national development
and productivity through environmentally sound management of water
resources for urban use. Supporting this objective is the identification
and implementation of strategies and actions to ensure the continued supply
of affordable water for present and future needs and to reverse current
trends of resource degradation and depletion.
18.58. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the
following targets:
(a) By the year 2000, to have ensured that all urban residents have
access to at least 40 litres per capita per day of safe water and that
75 per cent of the urban population are provided with on-site or community
facilities for sanitation;
(b) By the year 2000, to have established and applied quantitative and
qualitative discharge standards for municipal and industrial effluents;
(c) By the year 2000, to have ensured that 75 per cent of solid waste
generated in urban areas are collected and recycled or disposed of in an
environmentally safe way.
Activities
18.59. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement
the following activities:
(a) Protection of water resources from depletion, pollution and
degradation:
(i) Introduction of sanitary waste disposal facilities based on
environmentally sound low-cost and upgradable technologies;
(ii) Implementation of urban storm-water run-off and drainage
programmes;
(iii) Promotion of recycling and reuse of waste water and solid wastes;
(iv) Control of industrial pollution sources to protect water
resources;
(v) Protection of watersheds with respect to depletion and degradation
of their forest cover and from harmful upstream activities;
(vi) Promotion of research into the contribution of forests to
sustainable water resources development;
(vii) Encouragement of the best management practices for the use of
agrochemicals with a view to minimizing their impact on water
resources;
(b) Efficient and equitable allocation of water resources:
(i) Reconciliation of city development planning with the availability
and sustainability of water resources;
(ii) Satisfaction of the basic water needs of the urban population;
(iii) Introduction of water tariffs, taking into account the
circumstances in each country and where affordable, that reflect
the marginal and opportunity cost of water, especially for
productive activities;
(c) Institutional/legal/management reforms:
(i) Adoption of a city-wide approach to the management of water
resources;
(ii) Promotion at the national and local level of the elaboration of
land-use plans that give due consideration to water resources
development;
(iii) Utilization of the skills and potential of non-governmental
organizations, the private sector and local people, taking into
account the public's and strategic interests in water resources;
(d) Promotion of public participation:
(i) Initiation of public-awareness campaigns to encourage the public's
move towards rational water utilization;
(ii) Sensitization of the public to the issue of protecting water
quality within the urban environment;
(iii) Promotion of public participation in the collection, recycling and
elimination of wastes;
(e) Support to local capacity-building:
(i) Development of legislation and policies to promote investments in
urban water and waste management, reflecting the major
contribution of cities to national economic development;
(ii) Provision of seed money and technical support to the local
handling of materials supply and services;
(iii) Encouragement, to the extent possible, of autonomy and financial
viability of city water, solid waste and sewerage utilities;
(iv) Creation and maintenance of a cadre of professionals and
semi-professionals, for water, waste-water and solid waste
management;
(f) Provision of enhanced access to sanitary services:
(i) Implementation of water, sanitation and waste management
programmes focused on the urban poor;
(ii) Making available of low-cost water-supply and sanitation
technology choices;
(iii) Basing of choice of technology and service levels on user
preferences and willingness to pay;
(iv) Mobilization and facilitation of the active involvement of women
in water management teams;
(v) Encouragement and equipment of local water associations and water
committees to manage community water-supply systems and communal
latrines, with technical back-up available when required;
(vi) Consideration of the merits and practicality of rehabilitating
existing malfunctioning systems and of correcting operation and
maintenance inadequacies.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.60. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $20 billion, including about $4.5 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.61. The 1980s saw considerable progress in the development and
application of low-cost water-supply and sanitation technologies. The
programme envisages continuation of this work, with particular emphasis on
development of appropriate sanitation and waste disposal technologies for
low-income high-density urban settlements. There should also be
international information exchange, to ensure a widespread recognition
among sector professionals of the availability and benefits of appropriate
low-cost technologies. The public-awareness campaigns will also include
components to overcome user resistance to second-class services by
emphasizing the benefits of reliability and sustainability.
(c) Human resource development
18.62. Implicit in virtually all elements of this programme is the need
for progressive enhancement of the training and career development of
personnel at all levels in sector institutions. Specific programme
activities will involve the training and retention of staff with skills in
community involvement, low-cost technology, financial management, and
integrated planning of urban water resources management. Special provision
should be made for mobilizing and facilitating the active participation of
women, youth, indigenous people and local communities in water management
teams and for supporting the development of water associations and water
committees, with appropriate training of such personnel as treasurers,
secretaries and caretakers. Special education and training programmes for
women should be launched with regard to the protection of water resources
and water-quality within urban areas.
(d) Capacity-building
18.63. In combination with human resource development, strengthening of
institutional, legislative and management structures are key elements of
the programme. A prerequisite for progress in enhancing access to water
and sanitation services is the establishment of an institutional framework
that ensures that the real needs and potential contributions of currently
unserved populations are reflected in urban development planning. The
multisectoral approach, which is a vital part of urban water resources
management, requires institutional linkages at the national and city
levels, and the programme includes proposals for establishing intersectoral
planning groups. Proposals for greater pollution control and prevention
depend for their success on the right combination of economic and
regulatory mechanisms, backed by adequate monitoring and surveillance and
supported by enhanced capacity to address environmental issues on the part
of local Governments.
18.64. Establishment of appropriate design standards, water-quality
objectives and discharge consents is therefore among the proposed
activities. The programme also includes support for strengthening the
capability of water and sewerage agencies and for developing their autonomy
and financial viability. Operation and maintenance of existing water and
sanitation facilities have been recognized as entailing a serious
shortcoming in many countries. Technical and financial support are needed
to help countries correct present inadequacies and build up the capacity to
operate and maintain rehabilitated and new systems.
F. Water for sustainable food production and rural development
Basis for action
18.65. Sustainability of food production increasingly depends on sound and
efficient water use and conservation practices consisting primarily of
irrigation development and management, including water management with
respect to rain-fed areas, livestock water-supply, inland fisheries and
agro-forestry. Achieving food security is a high priority in many
countries, and agriculture must not only provide food for rising
populations, but also save water for other uses. The challenge is to
develop and apply water-saving technology and management methods and,
through capacity-building, enable communities to introduce institutions and
incentives for the rural population to adopt new approaches, for both
rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. The rural population must also have
better access to a potable water-supply and to sanitation services. It is
an immense task but not an impossible one, provided appropriate policies
and programmes are adopted at all levels - local, national and
international. While significant expansion of the area under rain-fed
agriculture has been achieved during the past decade, the productivity
response and sustainability of irrigation systems have been constrained by
problems of waterlogging and salinization. Financial and market
constraints are also a common problem. Soil erosion, mismanagement and
overexploitation of natural resources and acute competition for water have
all influenced the extent of poverty, hunger and famine in the developing
countries. Soil erosion caused by overgrazing of livestock is also often
responsible for the siltation of lakes. Most often, the development of
irrigation schemes is supported neither by environmental impact assessments
identifying hydrologic consequences within watersheds of interbasin
transfers, nor by the assessment of social impacts on peoples in river
valleys.
18.66. The non-availability of water-supplies of suitable quality is a
significant limiting factor to livestock production in many countries, and
improper disposal of animal wastes can in certain circumstances result in
pollution of water-supplies for both humans and animals. The
drinking-water requirements of livestock vary according to species and the
environment in which they are kept. It is estimated that the current
global livestock drinking-water requirement is about 60 billion litres per
day and based on livestock population growth estimates, this daily
requirement is predicted to increase by 0.4 billion litres per annum in the
foreseeable future.
18.67. Freshwater fisheries in lakes and streams are an important source
of food and protein. Fisheries of inland waters should be so managed as to
maximize the yield of aquatic food organisms in an environmentally sound
manner. This requires the conservation of water-quality and quantity, as
well as of the functional morphology of the aquatic environment. On the
other hand, fishing and aquaculture may themselves damage the aquatic
ecosystem; hence their development should conform to guidelines for impact
limitation. Present levels of production from inland fisheries, from both
fresh and brackish water, are about 7 million tons per year and could
increase to 16 million tons per year by the year 2000; however, any
increase in environmental stress could jeopardize this rise.
Objectives
18.68. The key strategic principles for holistic and integrated
environmentally sound management of water resources in the rural context
may be set forth as follows:
(a) Water should be regarded as a finite resource having an economic
value with significant social and economic implications reflecting the
importance of meeting basic needs;
(b) Local communities must participate in all phases of water
management, ensuring the full involvement of women in view of their crucial
role in the practical day-to-day supply, management and use of water;
(c) Water resource management must be developed within a comprehensive
set of policies for (i) human health; (ii) food production, preservation
and distribution; (iii) disaster mitigation plans; (iv) environmental
protection and conservation of the natural resource base;
(d) It is necessary to recognize and actively support the role of
rural populations, with particular emphasis on women.
18.69. An International Action Programme on Water and Sustainable
Agricultural Development (IAP-WASAD) has been initiated by FAO in
cooperation with other international organizations. The main objective of
the Action Programme is to assist developing countries in planning,
developing and managing water resources on an integrated basis to meet
present and future needs for agricultural production, taking into account
environmental considerations.
18.70. The Action Programme has developed a framework for sustainable
water use in the agricultural sector and identified priority areas for
action at national, regional and global levels. Quantitative targets for
new irrigation development, improvement of existing irrigation schemes and
reclamation of waterlogged and salinized lands through drainage for 130
developing countries are estimated on the basis of food requirements,
agro-climatic zones and availability of water and land.
18.71. FAO global projections for irrigation, drainage and small-scale
water programmes by the year 2000 for 130 developing countries are as
follows:
(a) 15.2 million hectares of new irrigation development;
(b) 12 million hectares of improvement/modernization of existing schemes;
(c) 7 million hectares installed with drainage and water control
facilities; and
(d) 10 million hectares of small-scale water programmes and conservation.
18.72. The development of new irrigation areas at the above-mentioned
level may give rise to environmental concerns in so far as it implies the
destruction of wetlands, water pollution, increased sedimentation and a
reduction in biodiversity. Therefore, new irrigation schemes should be
accompanied by an environmental impact assessment, depending upon the scale
of the scheme, in case significant negative environmental impacts are
expected. When considering proposals for new irrigation schemes,
consideration should also be given to a more rational exploitation, and an
increase in the efficiency or productivity, of any existing schemes capable
of serving the same localities. Technologies for new irrigation schemes
should be thoroughly evaluated, including their potential conflicts with
other land uses. The active involvement of water-users groups is a
supporting objective.
18.73. It should be ensured that rural communities of all countries,
according to their capacities and available resources and taking advantage
of international cooperation as appropriate, will have access to safe water
in sufficient quantities and adequate sanitation to meet their health needs
and maintain the essential qualities of their local environments.
18.74. The objectives with regard to water management for inland fisheries
and aquaculture include conservation of water-quality and water-quantity
requirements for optimum production and prevention of water pollution by
aquacultural activities. The Action Programme seeks to assist member
countries in managing the fisheries of inland waters through the promotion
of sustainable management of capture fisheries as well as the development
of environmentally sound approaches to intensification of aquaculture.
18.75. The objectives with regard to water management for livestock supply
are twofold: provision of adequate amounts of drinking-water and
safeguarding of drinking-water quality in accordance with the specific
needs of different animal species. This entails maximum salinity tolerance
levels and the absence of pathogenic organisms. No global targets can be
set owing to large regional and intra-country variations.
Activities
18.76. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement
the following activities:
(a) Water-supply and sanitation for the unserved rural poor:
(i) Establish national policies and budget priorities with regard to
increasing service coverage;
(ii) Promote appropriate technologies;
(iii) Introduce suitable cost-recovery mechanisms, taking into account
efficiency and equity through demand management mechanisms;
(iv) Promote community ownership and rights to water-supply and
sanitation facilities;
(v) Establish monitoring and evaluation systems;
(vi) Strengthen the rural water-supply and sanitation sector with
emphasis on institutional development, efficient management and an
appropriate framework for financing of services;
(vii) Increase hygiene education and eliminate disease transmission
foci;
(viii) Adopt appropriate technologies for water treatment;
(ix) Adopt wide-scale environmental management measures to control
disease vectors;
(b) Water-use efficiency:
(i) Increase of efficiency and productivity in agricultural water use
for better utilization of limited water resources;
(ii) Strengthen water and soil management research under irrigation and
rain-fed conditions;
(iii) Monitor and evaluate irrigation project performance to ensure,
inter alia, the optimal utilization and proper maintenance of the
project;
(iv) Support water-users groups with a view to improving management
performance at the local level;
(v) Support the appropriate use of relatively brackish water for
irrigation;
(c) Waterlogging, salinity control and drainage:
(i) Introduce surface drainage in rain-fed agriculture to prevent
temporary waterlogging and flooding of lowlands;
(ii) Introduce artificial drainage in irrigated and rain-fed
agriculture;
(iii) Encourage conjunctive use of surface and groundwaters, including
monitoring and water-balance studies;
(iv) Practise drainage in irrigated areas of arid and semi-arid
regions;
(d) Water-quality management:
(i) Establish and operate cost-effective water-quality monitoring
systems for agricultural water uses;
(ii) Prevent adverse effects of agricultural activities on
water-quality for other social and economic activities and on
wetlands, inter alia, through optimal use of on-farm input and the
minimization of the use of external input in agricultural
activities;
(iii) Establish biological, physical and chemical water-quality criteria
for agricultural water-users and for marine and riverine
ecosystems;
(iv) Minimize soil run-off and sedimentation;
(v) Dispose properly of sewage from human settlements and of manure
produced by intensive livestock breeding;
(vi) Minimize adverse effects from agricultural chemicals by use of
integrated pest management;
(vii) Educate communities about the pollution-related impacts of the use
of fertilizers and chemicals on water-quality, food safety and
human health;
(e) Water resources development programmes:
(i) Develop small-scale irrigation and water-supply for humans and
livestock and for water and soil conservation;
(ii) Formulate large-scale and long-term irrigation development
programmes, taking into account their effects on the local level,
the economy and the environment;
(iii) Promote local initiatives for the integrated development and
management of water resources;
(iv) Provide adequate technical advice and support and enhancement of
institutional collaboration at the local community level;
(v) Promote a farming approach for land and water management that
takes account of the level of education, the capacity to mobilize
local communities and the ecosystem requirements of arid and
semi-arid regions;
(vi) Plan and develop multi-purpose hydroelectric power schemes, making
sure that environmental concerns are duly taken into account;
(f) Scarce water resources management:
(i) Develop long-term strategies and practical implementation
programmes for agricultural water use under scarcity conditions
with competing demands for water;
(ii) Recognize water as a social, economic and strategic good in
irrigation planning and management;
(iii) Formulate specialized programmes focused on drought preparedness,
with emphasis on food scarcity and environmental safeguards;
(iv) Promote and enhance waste-water reuse in agriculture;
(g) Water-supply for livestock:
(i) Improve quality of water available to livestock, taking into
account their tolerance limits;
(ii) Increase the quantity of water sources available to livestock, in
particular those in extensive grazing systems, in order to both
reduce the distance needed to travel for water and to prevent
overgrazing around water sources;
(iii) Prevent contamination of water sources with animal excrement in
order to prevent the spread of diseases, in particular zoonosis;
(iv) Encourage multiple use of water-supplies through promotion of
integrated agro-livestock-fishery systems;
(v) Encourage water spreading schemes for increasing water retention
of extensive grasslands to stimulate forage production and prevent
run-off;
(h) Inland fisheries:
(i) Develop the sustainable management of fisheries as part of
national water resources planning;
(ii) Study specific aspects of the hydrobiology and environmental
requirements of key inland fish species in relation to varying
water regimes;
(iii) Prevent or mitigate modification of aquatic environments by other
users or rehabilitate environments subjected to such modification
on behalf of the sustainable use and conservation of biological
diversity of living aquatic resources;
(iv) Develop and disseminate environmentally sound water resources
development and management methodologies for the intensification
of fish yield from inland waters;
(v) Establish and maintain adequate systems for the collection and
interpretation of data on water quality and quantity and channel
morphology related to the state and management of living aquatic
resources, including fisheries;
(i) Aquaculture development:
(i) Develop environmentally sound aquaculture technologies that are
compatible with local, regional and national water resources
management plans and take into consideration social factors;
(ii) Introduce appropriate aquaculture techniques and related water
development and management practices in countries not yet
experienced in aquaculture;
(iii) Assess environmental impacts of aquaculture with specific
reference to commercialized culture units and potential water
pollution from processing centres;
(iv) Evaluate economic feasibility of aquaculture in relation to
alternative use of water, taking into consideration the use of
marginal-quality water and investment and operational
requirements.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.77. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $13.2 billion, including about $4.5 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.78. There is an urgent need for countries to monitor water resources
and water-quality, water and land use and crop production; compile
inventories of type and extent of agricultural water development and of
present and future contributions to sustainable agricultural development;
evaluate the potential for fisheries and aquaculture development; and
improve the availability and dissemination of data to planners,
technicians, farmers and fishermen. Priority requirements for research are
as follows:
(a) Identification of critical areas for water-related adaptive
research;
(b) Strengthening of the adaptive research capacities of institutions
in developing countries;
(c) Enhancement of translation of water-related farming and fishing
systems research results into practical and accessible technologies and
provision of the support needed for their rapid adoption at the field
level.
18.79. Transfer of technology, both horizontal and vertical, needs to be
strengthened. Mechanisms to provide credit, input supplies, markets,
appropriate pricing and transportation must be developed jointly by
countries and external support agencies. Integrated rural water-supply
infrastructure, including facilities for water-related education and
training and support services for agriculture, should be expanded for
multiple uses and should assist in developing the rural economy.
(c) Human resource development
18.80. Education and training of human resources should be actively
pursued at the national level through: (a) assessment of current and
long-term human resources management and training needs; (b) establishment
of a national policy for human resources development; and (c) initiation
and implementation of training programmes for staff at all levels as well
as for farmers. The necessary actions are as follows:
(a) Assess training needs for agricultural water management;
(b) Increase formal and informal training activities;
(c) Develop practical training courses for improving the ability of
extension services to disseminate technologies and strengthen farmers'
capabilities, with special reference to small-scale producers;
(d) Train staff at all levels, including farmers, fishermen and
members of local communities, with particular reference to women;
(e) Increase the opportunities for career development to enhance the
capabilities of administrators and officers at all levels involved in land-
and water-management programmes.
(d) Capacity-building
18.81. The importance of a functional and coherent institutional framework
at the national level to promote water and sustainable agricultural
development has generally been fully recognized at present. In addition,
an adequate legal framework of rules and regulations should be in place to
facilitate actions on agricultural water-use, drainage, water-quality
management, small-scale water programmes and the functioning of
water-users' and fishermen's associations. Legislation specific to the
needs of the agricultural water sector should be consistent with, and stem
from, general legislation for the management of water resources. Actions
should be pursued in the following areas:
(a) Improvement of water-use policies related to agriculture,
fisheries and rural development and of legal frameworks for implementing
such policies;
(b) Review, strengthening and restructuring, if required, of existing
institutions in order to enhance their capacities in water-related
activities, while recognizing the need to manage water resources at the
lowest appropriate level;
(c) Review and strengthening, where necessary, of organizational
structure, functional relationships and linkages among ministries and
departments within a given ministry;
(d) Provision of specific measures that require support for
institutional strengthening, inter alia, through long-term programme
budgeting, staff training, incentives, mobility, equipment and coordination
mechanisms;
(e) Enhancement of involvement of the private sector, where
appropriate,in human resource development and provision of infrastructure;
(f) Transfer of existing and new water-use technologies by creating
mechanisms for cooperation and information exchange among national and
regional institutions.
G. Impacts of climate change on water resources
Basis for action
18.82. There is uncertainty with respect to the prediction of climate
change at the global level. Although the uncertainties increase greatly at
the regional, national and local levels, it is at the national level that
the most important decisions would need to be made. Higher temperatures
and decreased precipitation would lead to decreased water-supplies and
increased water demands; they might cause deterioration in the quality of
freshwater bodies, putting strains on the already fragile balance between
supply and demand in many countries. Even where precipitation might
increase, there is no guarantee that it would occur at the time of year
when it could be used; in addition, there might be a likelihood of
increased flooding. Any rise in sealevel will often cause the intrusion of
salt water into estuaries, small islands and coastal aquifers and the
flooding of low-lying coastal areas; this puts low-lying countries at great
risk.
18.83. The Ministerial Declaration of the Second World Climate Conference
states that "the potential impact of such climate change could pose an
environmental threat of an up to now unknown magnitude ... and could even
threaten survival in some small island States and in low-lying coastal,
arid and semi-arid areas". 3/ The Conference recognized that among the
most important impacts of climate change were its effects on the hydrologic
cycle and on water management systems and, through these, on socio-economic
systems. Increase in incidence of extremes, such as floods and droughts,
would cause increased frequency and severity of disasters. The Conference
therefore called for a strengthening of the necessary research and
monitoring programmes and the exchange of relevant data and information,
these actions to be undertaken at the national, regional and international
levels.
Objectives
18.84. The very nature of this topic calls first and foremost for more
information about and greater understanding of the threat being faced.
This topic may be translated into the following objectives, consistent with
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change:
(a) To understand and quantify the threat of the impact of climate
change on freshwater resources;
(b) To facilitate the implementation of effective national
countermeasures, as and when the threatening impact is seen as sufficiently
confirmed to justify such action;
(c) To study the potential impacts of climate change on areas prone to
droughts and floods.
Activities
18.85. All States, according to their capacity and available resources,
and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement
the following activities:
(a) Monitor the hydrologic regime, including soil moisture,
groundwater balance, penetration and transpiration of water-quality, and
related climate factors, especially in the regions and countries most
likely to suffer from the adverse effects of climate change and where the
localities vulnerable to these effects should therefore be defined;
(b) Develop and apply techniques and methodologies for assessing the
potential adverse effects of climate change, through changes in
temperature, precipitation and sealevel rise, on freshwater resources and
the flood risk;
(c) Initiate case-studies to establish whether there are linkages
between climate changes and the current occurrences of droughts and floods
in certain regions;
(d) Assess the resulting social, economic and environmental impacts;
(e) Develop and initiate response strategies to counter the adverse
effects that are identified, including changing groundwater levels and to
mitigate saline intrusion into aquifers;
(f) Develop agricultural activities based on brackish-water use;
(g) Contribute to the research activities under way within the
framework of current international programmes.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.86. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be
about $100 million, including about $40 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.87. Monitoring of climate change and its impact on freshwater bodies
must be closely integrated with national and international programmes for
monitoring the environment, in particular those concerned with the
atmosphere, as discussed under other sections of Agenda 21, and the
hydrosphere, as discussed under programme area B above. The analysis of
data for indication of climate change as a basis for developing remedial
measures is a complex task. Extensive research is necessary in this area
and due account has to be taken of the work of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC), the World Climate Programme, the International
Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and other relevant international
programmes.
18.88. The development and implementation of response strategies requires
innovative use of technological means and engineering solutions, including
the installation of flood and drought warning systems and the construction
of new water resource development projects such as dams, aqueducts, well
fields, waste-water treatment plants, desalination works, levees, banks and
drainage channels. There is also a need for coordinated research networks
such as the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme/Global Change
System for Analysis, Research and Training (IGBP/START) network.
(c) Human resource development
18.89. The developmental work and innovation depend for their success on
good academic training and staff motivation. International projects can
help by enumerating alternatives, but each country needs to establish and
implement the necessary policies and to develop its own expertise in the
scientific and engineering challenges to be faced, as well as a body of
dedicated individuals who are able to interpret the complex issues
concerned for those required to make policy decisions. Such specialized
personnel need to be trained, hired and retained in service, so that they
may serve their countries in these tasks.
(d) Capacity-building
18.90. There is a need, however, to build a capacity at the national level
to develop, review and implement response strategies. Construction of
major engineering works and installation of forecasting systems will
require significant strengthening of the agencies responsible, whether in
the public or the private sector. Most critical is the requirement for a
socio-economic mechanism that can review predictions of the impact of
climate change and possible response strategies and make the necessary
judgements and decisions.
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Notes
1/ Report of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata,
14-25 March 1977 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.77.II.A.12),
part one, chap. I, sect. C, para. 35.
2/ Ibid., part one, chap. I, resolution II.
3/ A/45/696/Add.1, annex III, preamble, para. 2.
END OF CHAPTER 18
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====RRojas Research Unit/1996===================================
