A-21: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Distr.
GENERAL
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol.I)
12 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
SECTION I. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS
Chapter 2
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION TO ACCELERATE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND RELATED DOMESTIC POLICIES
INTRODUCTION
2.1. In order to meet the challenges of environment and development, States
have decided to establish a new global partnership. This partnership
commits all States to engage in a continuous and constructive dialogue,
inspired by the need to achieve a more efficient and equitable world
economy, keeping in view the increasing interdependence of the community of
nations and that sustainable development should become a priority item on
the agenda of the international community. It is recognized that, for the
success of this new partnership, it is important to overcome confrontation
and to foster a climate of genuine cooperation and solidarity. It is
equally important to strengthen national and international policies and
multinational cooperation to adapt to the new realities.
2.2. Economic policies of individual countries and international economic
relations both have great relevance to sustainable development. The
reactivation and acceleration of development requires both a dynamic and a
supportive international economic environment and determined policies at
the national level. It will be frustrated in the absence of either of
these requirements. A supportive external economic environment is crucial.
The development process will not gather momentum if the global economy
lacks dynamism and stability and is beset with uncertainties. Neither will
it gather momentum if the developing countries are weighted down by
external indebtedness, if development finance is inadequate, if barriers
restrict access to markets and if commodity prices and the terms of trade
of developing countries remain depressed. The record of the 1980s was
essentially negative on each of these counts and needs to be reversed. The
policies and measures needed to create an international environment that is
strongly supportive of national development efforts are thus vital.
International cooperation in this area should be designed to complement and
support - not to diminish or subsume - sound domestic economic policies, in
both developed and developing countries, if global progress towards
sustainable development is to be achieved.
2.3. The international economy should provide a supportive international
climate for achieving environment and development goals by:
(a) Promoting sustainable development through trade liberalization;
(b) Making trade and environment mutually supportive;
(c) Providing adequate financial resources to developing countries
and dealing with international debt;
(d) Encouraging macroeconomic policies conducive to environment and
development.
2.4. Governments recognize that there is a new global effort to relate the
elements of the international economic system and mankind's need for a safe
and stable natural environment. Therefore, it is the intent of Governments
that consensus-building at the intersection of the environmental and trade
and development areas will be ongoing in existing international forums, as
well as in the domestic policy of each country.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Promoting sustainable development through trade
Basis for action
2.5. An open, equitable, secure, non-discriminatory and predictable
multilateral trading system that is consistent with the goals of
sustainable development and leads to the optimal distribution of global
production in accordance with comparative advantage is of benefit to all
trading partners. Moreover, improved market access for developing
countries' exports in conjunction with sound macroeconomic and
environmental policies would have a positive environmental impact and
therefore make an important contribution towards sustainable development.
2.6. Experience has shown that sustainable development requires a
commitment to sound economic policies and management, an effective and
predictable public administration, the integration of environmental
concerns into decision-making and progress towards democratic government,
in the light of country-specific conditions, which allows for full
participation of all parties concerned. These attributes are essential for
the fulfilment of the policy directions and objectives listed below.
2.7. The commodity sector dominates the economies of many developing
countries in terms of production, employment and export earnings. An
important feature of the world commodity economy in the 1980s was the
prevalence of very low and declining real prices for most commodities in
international markets and a resulting substantial contraction in commodity
export earnings for many producing countries. The ability of those
countries to mobilize, through international trade, the resources needed to
finance investments required for sustainable development may be impaired by
this development and by tariff and non-tariff impediments, including
tariff escalation, limiting their access to export markets. The removal of
existing distortions in international trade is essential. In particular,
the achievement of this objective requires that there be substantial and
progressive reduction in the support and protection of agriculture -
covering internal regimes, market access and export subsidies - as well as
of industry and other sectors, in order to avoid inflicting large losses on
the more efficient producers, especially in developing countries. Thus, in
agriculture, industry and other sectors, there is scope for initiatives
aimed at trade liberalization and at policies to make production more
responsive to environment and development needs. Trade liberalization
should therefore be pursued on a global basis across economic sectors so as
to contribute to sustainable development.
2.8. The international trading environment has been affected by a number of
developments that have created new challenges and opportunities and have
made multilateral economic cooperation of even greater importance. World
trade has continued to grow faster than world output in recent years.
However, the expansion of world trade has been unevenly spread, and only a
limited number of developing countries have been capable of achieving
appreciable growth in their exports. Protectionist pressures and
unilateral policy actions continue to endanger the functioning of an open
multilateral trading system, affecting particularly the export interests of
developing countries. Economic integration processes have intensified in
recent years and should impart dynamism to global trade and enhance the
trade and development possibilities for developing countries. In recent
years, a growing number of these countries have adopted courageous policy
reforms involving ambitious autonomous trade liberalization, while
far-reaching reforms and profound restructuring processes are taking place
in Central and Eastern European countries, paving the way for their
integration into the world economy and the international trading system.
Increased attention is being devoted to enhancing the role of enterprises
and promoting competitive markets through adoption of competitive policies.
The GSP has proved to be a useful trade policy instrument, although its
objectives will have to be fulfilled, and trade facilitation strategies
relating to electronic data interchange (EDI) have been effective in
improving the trading efficiency of the public and private sectors. The
interactions between environment policies and trade issues are manifold and
have not yet been fully assessed. An early, balanced, comprehensive and
successful outcome of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations
would bring about further liberalization and expansion of world trade,
enhance the trade and development possibilities of developing countries and
provide greater security and predictability to the international trading
system.
Objectives
2.9. In the years ahead, and taking into account the results of the
Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations, Governments should
continue to strive to meet the following objectives:
(a) To promote an open, non-discriminatory and equitable
multilateral trading system that will enable all countries - in particular,
the developing countries - to improve their economic structures and improve
the standard of living of their populations through sustained economic
development;
(b) To improve access to markets for exports of developing
countries;
(c) To improve the functioning of commodity markets and achieve
sound, compatible and consistent commodity policies at national and
international levels with a view to optimizing the contribution of the
commodity sector to sustainable development, taking into account
environmental considerations;
(d) To promote and support policies, domestic and international,
that make economic growth and environmental protection mutually supportive.
Activities
(a) International and regional cooperation and coordination
Promoting an international trading system that takes account of the
needs of developing countries
2.10. Accordingly, the international community should:
(a) Halt and reverse protectionism in order to bring about further
liberalization and expansion of world trade, to the benefit of all
countries, in particular the developing countries;
(b) Provide for an equitable, secure, non-discriminatory and
predictable international trading system;
(c) Facilitate, in a timely way, the integration of all countries
into the world economy and the international trading system;
(d) Ensure that environment and trade policies are mutually
supportive, with a view to achieving sustainable development;
(e) Strengthen the international trade policies system through an
early, balanced, comprehensive and successful outcome of the Uruguay Round
of multilateral trade negotiations.
2.11. The international community should aim at finding ways and means of
achieving a better functioning and enhanced transparency of commodity
markets, greater diversification of the commodity sector in developing
economies within a macroeconomic framework that takes into consideration a
country's economic structure, resource endowments and market opportunities,
and better management of natural resources that takes into account the
necessities of sustainable development.
2.12. Therefore, all countries should implement previous commitments to
halt and reverse protectionism and further expand market access,
particularly in areas of interest to developing countries. This
improvement of market access will be facilitated by appropriate structural
adjustment in developed countries. Developing countries should continue
the trade-policy reforms and structural adjustment they have undertaken.
It is thus urgent to achieve an improvement in market access conditions for
commodities, notably through the progressive removal of barriers that
restrict imports, particularly from developing countries, of commodity
products in primary and processed forms, as well as the substantial and
progressive reduction of types of support that induce uncompetitive
production, such as production and export subsidies.
(b) Management related activities
Developing domestic policies that maximize the benefits of trade
liberalization for sustainable development
2.13. For developing countries to benefit from the liberalization of
trading systems, they should implement the following policies, as
appropriate:
(a) Create a domestic environment supportive of an optimal balance
between production for the domestic and export markets and remove biases
against exports and discourage inefficient import-substitution;
(b) Promote the policy framework and the infrastructure required to
improve the efficiency of export and import trade as well as the
functioning of domestic markets.
2.14. The following policies should be adopted by developing countries
with respect to commodities consistent with market efficiency:
(a) Expand processing, distribution and improve marketing practices
and the competitiveness of the commodity sector;
(b) Diversify in order to reduce dependence on commodity exports;
(c) Reflect efficient and sustainable use of factors of production
in the formation of commodity prices, including the reflection of
environmental, social and resources costs.
(c) Data and information
Encouraging data collection and research
2.15. GATT, UNCTAD and other relevant institutions should continue to
collect appropriate trade data and information. The Secretary-General of
the United Nations is requested to strengthen the Trade Control Measures
Information System managed by UNCTAD.
Improving international cooperation in commodity trade and the
diversification of the sector
2.16. With regard to commodity trade, Governments should, directly or
through appropriate international organizations, where appropriate:
(a) Seek optimal functioning of commodity markets, inter alia,
through improved market transparency involving exchanges of views and
information on investment plans, prospects and markets for individual
commodities. Substantive negotiations between producers and consumers
should be pursued with a view to achieving viable and more efficient
international agreements that take into account market trends, or
arrangements, as well as study groups. In this regard, particular
attention should be paid to the agreements on cocoa, coffee, sugar and
tropical timber. The importance of international commodity agreements and
arrangements is underlined. Occupational health and safety matters,
technology transfer and services associated with the production, marketing
and promotion of commodities, as well as environmental considerations,
should be taken into account;
(b) Continue to apply compensation mechanisms for shortfalls in
commodity export earnings of developing countries in order to encourage
diversification efforts;
(c) Provide assistance to developing countries upon request in the
design and implementation of commodity policies and the gathering and
utilization of information on commodity markets;
(d) Support the efforts of developing countries to promote the
policy framework and infrastructure required to improve the efficiency of
export and import trade;
(e) Support the diversification initiatives of the developing
countries at the national, regional and international levels.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
2.17. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities in this programme area to
be about $8.8 billion from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Capacity-building
2.18. The above-mentioned technical cooperation activities aim at
strengthening national capabilities for design and implementation of
commodity policy, use and management of national resources and the
gathering and utilization of information on commodity markets.
B. Making trade and environment mutually supportive
Basis for action
2.19. Environment and trade policies should be mutually supportive. An
open, multilateral trading system makes possible a more efficient
allocation and use of resources and thereby contributes to an increase in
production and incomes and to lessening demands on the environment. It
thus provides additional resources needed for economic growth and
development and improved environmental protection. A sound environment, on
the other hand, provides the ecological and other resources needed to
sustain growth and underpin a continuing expansion of trade. An open,
multilateral trading system, supported by the adoption of sound
environmental policies, would have a positive impact on the environment and
contribute to sustainable development.
2.20. International cooperation in the environmental field is growing, and
in a number of cases trade provisions in multilateral environment
agreements have played a role in tackling global environmental challenges.
Trade measures have thus been used in certain specific instances, where
considered necessary, to enhance the effectiveness of environmental
regulations for the protection of the environment. Such regulations should
address the root causes of environmental degradation so as not to result in
unjustified restrictions on trade. The challenge is to ensure that trade
and environment policies are consistent and reinforce the process of
sustainable development. However, account should be taken of the fact that
environmental standards valid for developed countries may have unwarranted
social and economic costs in developing countries.
Objectives
2.21. Governments should strive to meet the following objectives, through
relevant multilateral forums, including GATT, UNCTAD and other
international organizations:
(a) To make international trade and environment policies mutually
supportive in favour of sustainable development;
(b) To clarify the role of GATT, UNCTAD and other international
organizations in dealing with trade and environment-related issues,
including, where relevant, conciliation procedure and dispute settlement;
(c) To encourage international productivity and competitiveness and
encourage a constructive role on the part of industry in dealing with
environment and development issues.
Activities
Developing an environment/trade and development agenda
2.22. Governments should encourage GATT, UNCTAD and other relevant
international and regional economic institutions to examine, in accordance
with their respective mandates and competences, the following propositions
and principles:
(a) Elaborate adequate studies for the better understanding of the
relationship between trade and environment for the promotion of sustainable
development;
(b) Promote a dialogue between trade, development and environment
communities;
(c) In those cases when trade measures related to environment are
used, ensure transparency and compatibility with international obligations;
(d) Deal with the root causes of environment and development
problems in a manner that avoids the adoption of environmental measures
resulting in unjustified restrictions on trade;
(e) Seek to avoid the use of trade restrictions or distortions as a
means to offset differences in cost arising from differences in
environmental standards and regulations, since their application could lead
to trade distortions and increase protectionist tendencies;
(f) Ensure that environment-related regulations or standards,
including those related to health and safety standards, do not constitute
a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised
restriction on trade;
(g) Ensure that special factors affecting environment and trade
policies in the developing countries are borne in mind in the application
of environmental standards, as well as in the use of any trade measures.
It is worth noting that standards that are valid in the most advanced
countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the
developing countries;
(h) Encourage participation of developing countries in multilateral
agreements through such mechanisms as special transitional rules;
(i) Avoid unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges
outside the jurisdiction of the importing country. Environmental measures
addressing transborder or global environmental problems should, as far as
possible, be based on an international consensus. Domestic measures
targeted to achieve certain environmental objectives may need trade
measures to render them effective. Should trade policy measures be found
necessary for the enforcement of environmental policies, certain principles
and rules should apply. These could include, inter alia, the principle of
non-discrimination; the principle that the trade measure chosen should be
the least trade-restrictive necessary to achieve the objectives; an
obligation to ensure transparency in the use of trade measures related to
the environment and to provide adequate notification of national
regulations; and the need to give consideration to the special conditions
and developmental requirements of developing countries as they move towards
internationally agreed environmental objectives;
(j) Develop more precision, where necessary, and clarify the
relationship between GATT provisions and some of the multilateral measures
adopted in the environment area;
(k) Ensure public input in the formation, negotiation and
implementation of trade policies as a means of fostering increased
transparency in the light of country-specific conditions;
(l) Ensure that environmental policies provide the appropriate legal
and institutional framework to respond to new needs for the protection of
the environment that may result from changes in production and trade
specialization.
C. Providing adequate financial resources to developing
countries
Basis for action
2.23. Investment is critical to the ability of developing countries to
achieve needed economic growth to improve the welfare of their populations
and to meet their basic needs in a sustainable manner, all without
deteriorating or depleting the resource base that underpins development.
Sustainable development requires increased investment, for which domestic
and external financial resources are needed. Foreign private investment
and the return of flight capital, which depend on a healthy investment
climate, are an important source of financial resources. Many developing
countries have experienced a decade-long situation of negative net transfer
of financial resources, during which their financial receipts were exceeded
by payments they had to make, in particular for debt-servicing. As a
result, domestically mobilized resources had to be transferred abroad
instead of being invested locally in order to promote sustainable economic
development.
2.24. For many developing countries, the reactivation of development will
not take place without an early and durable solution to the problems of
external indebtedness, taking into account the fact that, for many
developing countries, external debt burdens are a significant problem. The
burden of debt-service payments on those countries has imposed severe
constraints on their ability to accelerate growth and eradicate poverty and
has led to a contraction in imports, investment and consumption. External
indebtedness has emerged as a main factor in the economic stalemate in the
developing countries. Continued vigorous implementation of the evolving
international debt strategy is aimed at restoring debtor countries'
external financial viability, and the resumption of their growth and
development would assist in achieving sustainable growth and development.
In this context, additional financial resources in favour of developing
countries and the efficient utilization of such resources are essential.
Objectives
2.25. The specific requirements for the implementation of the sectoral and
cross-sectoral programmes included in Agenda 21 are dealt with in the
relevant programme areas and in chapter 33 (Financial resources and
mechanisms).
Activities
(a) Meeting international targets of official development assistance
funding
2.26. As discussed in chapter 33, new and additional resources should be
provided to support Agenda 21 programmes.
(b) Addressing the debt issue
2.27. In regard to the external debt incurred with commercial banks, the
progress being made under the strengthened debt strategy is recognized and
a more rapid implementation of this strategy is encouraged. Some countries
have already benefited from the combination of sound adjustment policies
and commercial bank debt reduction or equivalent measures. The
international community encourages:
(a) Other countries with heavy debts to banks to negotiate similar
commercial bank debt reduction with their creditors;
(b) The parties to such a negotiation to take due account of both
the medium-term debt reduction and new money requirements of the debtor
country;
(c) Multilateral institutions actively engaged in the strengthened
international debt strategy to continue to support debt-reduction packages
related to commercial bank debt with a view to ensuring that the magnitude
of such financing is consonant with the evolving debt strategy;
(d) Creditor banks to participate in debt and debt-service
reduction;
(e) Strengthened policies to attract direct investment, avoid
unsustainable levels of debt and foster the return of flight capital.
2.28. With regard to debt owed to official bilateral creditors, the recent
measures taken by the Paris Club with regard to more generous terms of
relief to the poorest most indebted countries are welcomed. Ongoing
efforts to implement these "Trinidad terms" measures in a manner
commensurate with the payments capacity of those countries and in a way
that gives additional support to their economic reform efforts are
welcomed. The substantial bilateral debt reduction undertaken by some
creditor countries is also welcomed, and others which are in a position to
do so are encouraged to take similar action.
2.29. The actions of low-income countries with substantial debt burdens
which continue, at great cost, to service their debt and safeguard their
creditworthiness are commended. Particular attention should be paid to
their resource needs. Other debt-distressed developing countries which are
making great efforts to continue to service their debt and meet their
external financial obligations also deserve due attention.
2.30. In connection with multilateral debt, it is urged that serious
attention be given to continuing to work towards growth-oriented solutions
to the problem of developing countries with serious debt-servicing
problems, including those whose debt is mainly to official creditors or to
multilateral financial institutions. Particularly in the case of
low-income countries in the process of economic reform, the support of the
multilateral financial institutions in the form of new disbursements and
the use of their concessional funds is welcomed. The use of support groups
should be continued in providing resources to clear arrears of countries
embarking upon vigorous economic reform programmes supported by IMF and the
World Bank. Measures by the multilateral financial institutions such as
the refinancing of interest on non-concessional loans with IDA reflows -
"fifth dimension" - are noted with appreciation.
Means of implementation
Financing and cost evaluation*
D. Encouraging economic policies conducive to sustainable
development
Basis for action
2.31. The unfavourable external environment facing developing countries
makes domestic resource mobilization and efficient allocation and
utilization of domestically mobilized resources all the more important for
the promotion of sustainable development. In a number of countries,
policies are necessary to correct misdirected public spending, large budget
deficits and other macroeconomic imbalances, restrictive policies and
distortions in the areas of exchange rates, investment and finance, and
obstacles to entrepreneurship. In developed countries, continuing policy
reform and adjustment, including appropriate savings rates, would help
generate resources to support the transition to sustainable development
both domestically and in developing countries.
* * * * *
* See chap. 33 (Financial resources and mechanisms).
* * * * *
2.32. Good management that fosters the association of effective,
efficient, honest, equitable and accountable public administration with
individual rights and opportunities is an essential element for
sustainable, broadly based development and sound economic performance at
all development levels. All countries should increase their efforts to
eradicate mismanagement of public and private affairs, including
corruption, taking into account the factors responsible for, and agents
involved in, this phenomenon.
2.33. Many indebted developing countries are undergoing structural
adjustment programmes relating to debt rescheduling or new loans. While
such programmes are necessary for improving the balance in fiscal budgets
and balance-of-payments accounts, in some cases they have resulted in
adverse social and environmental effects, such as cuts in allocations for
health care, education and environmental protection. It is important to
ensure that structural adjustment programmes do not have negative impacts
on the environment and social development so that such programmes can be
more in line with the objectives of sustainable development.
Objectives
2.34. It is necessary to establish, in the light of the country-specific
conditions, economic policy reforms that promote the efficient planning and
utilization of resources for sustainable development through sound economic
and social policies, foster entrepreneurship and the incorporation of
social and environmental costs in resource pricing, and remove sources of
distortion in the area of trade and investment.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
Promoting sound economic policies
2.35. The industrialized countries and other countries in a position to do
so should strengthen their efforts:
(a) To encourage a stable and predictable international economic
environment, particularly with regard to monetary stability, real rates of
interest and fluctuations in key exchange rates;
(b) To stimulate savings and reduce fiscal deficits;
(c) To ensure that the processes of policy coordination take into
account the interests and concerns of the developing countries, including
the need to promote positive action to support the efforts of the least
developed countries to halt their marginalization in the world economy;
(d) To undertake appropriate national macroeconomic and structural
policies aimed at promoting non-inflationary growth, narrowing their major
external imbalances and increasing the adjustment capacity of their
economies.
2.36. Developing countries should consider strengthening their efforts to
implement sound economic policies:
(a) That maintain the monetary and fiscal discipline required to
promote price stability and external balance;
(b) That result in realistic exchange rates;
(c) That raise domestic savings and investment, as well as improve
returns to investment.
2.37. More specifically, all countries should develop policies that
improve efficiency in the allocation of resources and take full advantage
of the opportunities offered by the changing global economic environment.
In particular, wherever appropriate, and taking into account national
strategies and objectives, countries should:
(a) Remove the barriers to progress caused by bureaucratic
inefficiencies, administrative strains, unnecessary controls and the
neglect of market conditions;
(b) Promote transparency in administration and decision-making;
(c) Encourage the private sector and foster entrepreneurship by
improving institutional facilities for enterprise creation and market
entry. The essential objective would be to simplify or remove the
restrictions, regulations and formalities that make it more complicated,
costly and time-consuming to set up and operate enterprises in many
developing countries;
(d) Promote and support the investment and infrastructure required
for sustainable economic growth and diversification on an environmentally
sound and sustainable basis;
(e) Provide scope for appropriate economic instruments, including
market mechanisms, in harmony with the objectives of sustainable
development and fulfilment of basic needs;
(f) Promote the operation of effective tax systems and financial
sectors;
(g) Provide opportunities for small-scale enterprises, both farm and
non-farm, and for the indigenous population and local communities to
contribute fully to the attainment of sustainable development;
(h) Remove biases against exports and in favour of inefficient
import substitution and establish policies that allow them to benefit fully
from the flows of foreign investment, within the framework of national,
social, economic and developmental goals;
(i) Promote the creation of a domestic economic environment
supportive of an optimal balance between production for the domestic and
export markets.
(b) International and regional cooperation and coordination
2.38. Governments of developed countries and those of other countries in
a position to do so should, directly or through appropriate international
and regional organizations and international lending institutions, enhance
their efforts to provide developing countries with increased technical
assistance for the following:
(a) Capacity-building in the nation's design and implementation of
economic policies, upon request;
(b) Design and operation of efficient tax systems, accounting
systems and financial sectors;
(c) Promotion of entrepreneurship.
2.39. International financial and development institutions should further
review their policies and programmes in the light of the objective of
sustainable development.
2.40. Stronger economic cooperation among developing countries has long
been accepted as an important component of efforts to promote economic
growth and technological capabilities and to accelerate development in the
developing world. Therefore, the efforts of the developing countries to
promote economic cooperation among themselves should be enhanced and
continue to be supported by the international community.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
2.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities in this programme area to
be about $50 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Capacity-building
2.42. The above-mentioned policy changes in developing countries involve
substantial national efforts for capacity-building in the areas of public
administration, central banking, tax administration, savings institutions
and financial markets.
2.43. Particular efforts in the implementation of the four programme areas
identified in this chapter are warranted in view of the especially acute
environmental and developmental problems of the least developed countries.
END OF CHAPTER 2
.
======RRojas Research Unit/1996===========================
