A-21: PROTECTION OF ATMOSPHERE
Distr.
GENERAL
A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II)
13 August 1992
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)
Chapter 9
PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
9.1. Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional
endeavour involving various sectors of economic activity. The options and
measures described in the present chapter are recommended for consideration
and, as appropriate, implementation by Governments and other bodies in
their efforts to protect the atmosphere.
9.2. It is recognized that many of the issues discussed in this chapter
are also addressed in such international agreements as the 1985 Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as amended, the 1992
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and other
international, including regional, instruments. In the case of activities
covered by such agreements, it is understood that the recommendations
contained in this chapter do not oblige any Government to take measures
which exceed the provisions of these legal instruments. However, within
the framework of this chapter, Governments are free to carry out additional
measures which are consistent with those legal instruments.
9.3. It is also recognized that activities that may be undertaken in
pursuit of the objectives of this chapter should be coordinated with social
and economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding
adverse impacts on the latter, taking into full account the legitimate
priority needs of developing countries for the achievement of sustained
economic growth and the eradication of poverty.
9.4. In this context particular reference is also made to programme area
A of chapter 2 of Agenda 21 (Promoting sustainable development through
trade).
9.5. The present chapter includes the following four programme areas:
(a) Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific basis
for decision-making;
(b) Promoting sustainable development:
(i) Energy development, efficiency and consumption;
(ii) Transportation;
(iii) Industrial development;
(iv) Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use;
(c) Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion;
(d) Transboundary atmospheric pollution.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific
basis for decision-making
Basis for action
9.6. Concern about climate change and climate variability, air pollution
and ozone depletion has created new demands for scientific, economic and
social information to reduce the remaining uncertainties in these fields.
Better understanding and prediction of the various properties of the
atmosphere and of the affected ecosystems, as well as health impacts and
their interactions with socio-economic factors, are needed.
Objectives
9.7. The basic objective of this programme area is to improve the
understanding of processes that influence and are influenced by the Earth's
atmosphere on a global, regional and local scale, including, inter alia,
physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic, hydrological, economic
and social processes; to build capacity and enhance international
cooperation; and to improve understanding of the economic and social
consequences of atmospheric changes and of mitigation and response measures
addressing such changes.
Activities
9.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Promote research related to the natural processes affecting and
being affected by the atmosphere, as well as the critical linkages between
sustainable development and atmospheric changes, including impacts on human
health, ecosystems, economic sectors and society;
(b) Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage of the Global
Climate Observing System and its components, including the Global
Atmosphere Watch, by facilitating, inter alia, the establishment and
operation of additional systematic observation stations, and by
contributing to the development, utilization and accessibility of these
databases;
(c) Promote cooperation in:
(i) The development of early detection systems concerning changes
and fluctuations in the atmosphere;
(ii) The establishment and improvement of capabilities to predict
such changes and fluctuations and to assess the resulting environmental and
socio-economic impacts;
(d) Cooperate in research to develop methodologies and identify
threshold levels of atmospheric pollutants, as well as atmospheric levels
of greenhouse gas concentrations, that would cause dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system and the environment as a whole, and
the associated rates of change that would not allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally;
(e) Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientific capacities,
the exchange of scientific data and information, and the facilitation of
the participation and training of experts and technical staff, particularly
of developing countries, in the fields of research, data assembly,
collection and assessment, and systematic observation related to the
atmosphere.
B. Promoting sustainable development
1. Energy development, efficiency and consumption
Basis for action
9.9. Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved
quality of life. Much of the world's energy, however, is currently
produced and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology
were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase
substantially. The need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and
other gases and substances will increasingly need to be based on efficiency
in energy production, transmission, distribution and consumption, and on
growing reliance on environmentally sound energy systems, particularly new
and renewable sources of energy. 1/ All energy sources will need to be
used in ways that respect the atmosphere, human health and the environment
as a whole.
9.10. The existing constraints to increasing the environmentally sound
energy supplies required for pursuing the path towards sustainable
development, particularly in developing countries, need to be removed.
Objectives
9.11. The basic and ultimate objective of this programme area is to reduce
adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector by promoting
policies or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the contribution of
environmentally sound and cost-effective energy systems, particularly new
and renewable ones, through less polluting and more efficient energy
production, transmission, distribution and use. This objective should
reflect the need for equity, adequate energy supplies and increasing energy
consumption in developing countries, and should take into consideration the
situations of countries that are highly dependent on income generated from
the production, processing and export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels
and associated energy-intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels for
which countries have serious difficulties in switching to alternatives, and
the situations of countries highly vulnerable to adverse effects of climate
change.
Activities
9.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Cooperate in identifying and developing economically viable,
environmentally sound energy sources to promote the availability of
increased energy supplies to support sustainable development efforts, in
particular in developing countries;
(b) Promote the development at the national level of appropriate
methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and economic policy
decisions for sustainable development, inter alia, through environmental
impact assessments;
(c) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of improved
energy-efficient technologies and practices, including endogenous
technologies in all relevant sectors, giving special attention to the
rehabilitation and modernization of power systems, with particular
attention to developing countries;
(d) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of
technologies and practices for environmentally sound energy systems,
including new and renewable energy systems, with particular attention to
developing countries;
(e) Promote the development of institutional, scientific, planning
and management capacities, particularly in developing countries, to
develop, produce and use increasingly efficient and less polluting forms of
energy;
(f) Review current energy supply mixes to determine how the
contribution of environmentally sound energy systems as a whole,
particularly new and renewable energy systems, could be increased in an
economically efficient manner, taking into account respective countries'
unique social, physical, economic and political characteristics, and
examining and implementing, where appropriate, measures to overcome any
barriers to their development and use;
(g) Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregionally, where
applicable, and study the feasibility of efficient distribution of
environmentally sound energy from new and renewable energy sources;
(h) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and
economic measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;
(i) Build capacity for energy planning and programme management in
energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and
promotion of new and renewable sources of energy;
(j) Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission standards or
recommendations at the national level, 2/ aimed at the development and use
of technologies that minimize adverse impacts on the environment;
(k) Encourage education and awareness-raising programmes at the
local, national, subregional and regional levels concerning energy
efficiency and environmentally sound energy systems;
(l) Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperation with the
private sector, labelling programmes for products to provide decision
makers and consumers with information on opportunities for energy
efficiency.
2. Transportation
Basis for action
9.13. The transport sector has an essential and positive role to play in
economic and social development, and transportation needs will undoubtedly
increase. However, since the transport sector is also a source of
atmospheric emissions, there is need for a review of existing transport
systems and for more effective design and management of traffic and
transport systems.
Objectives
9.14. The basic objective of this programme area is to develop and promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, as appropriate, to limit, reduce or
control, as appropriate, harmful emissions into the atmosphere and other
adverse environmental effects of the transport sector, taking into account
development priorities as well as the specific local and national
circumstances and safety aspects.
Activities
9.15. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost-effective, more
efficient, less polluting and safer transport systems, particularly
integrated rural and urban mass transit, as well as environmentally sound
road networks, taking into account the needs for sustainable social,
economic and development priorities, particularly in developing countries;
(b) Facilitate at the international, regional, subregional and
national levels access to and the transfer of safe, efficient, including
resource-efficient, and less polluting transport technologies, particularly
to the developing countries, including the implementation of appropriate
training programmes;
(c) Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collecting,
analysing and exchanging relevant information on the relation between
environment and transport, with particular emphasis on the systematic
observation of emissions and the development of a transport database;
(d) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and
economic measures, in order to encourage use of transportation modes that
minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere;
(e) Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanisms to integrate
transport planning strategies and urban and regional settlement planning
strategies, with a view to reducing the environmental impacts of transport;
(f) Study, within the framework of the United Nations and its
regional commissions, the feasibility of convening regional conferences on
transport and the environment.
3. Industrial development
Basis for action
9.16. Industry is essential for the production of goods and services and
is a major source of employment and income, and industrial development as
such is essential for economic growth. At the same time, industry is a
major resource and materials user and consequently industrial activities
result in emissions into the atmosphere and the environment as a whole.
Protection of the atmosphere can be enhanced, inter alia, by increasing
resource and materials efficiency in industry, installing or improving
pollution abatement technologies and replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and other ozone-depleting substances with appropriate substitutes, as well
as by reducing wastes and by-products.
Objectives
9.17. The basic objective of this programme area is to encourage
industrial development in ways that minimize adverse impacts on the
atmosphere by, inter alia, increasing efficiency in the production and
consumption by industry of all resources and materials, by improving
pollution-abatement technologies and by developing new environmentally
sound technologies.
Activities
9.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and
economic measures, in order to minimize industrial pollution and adverse
impacts on the atmosphere;
(b) Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its capacity to
develop technologies, products and processes that are safe, less polluting
and make more efficient use of all resources and materials, including
energy;
(c) Cooperate in the development and transfer of such industrial
technologies and in the development of capacities to manage and use such
technologies, particularly with respect to developing countries;
(d) Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments to
foster sustainable industrial development;
(e) Promote efficient use of materials and resources, taking into
account the life cycles of products, in order to realize the economic and
environmental benefits of using resources more efficiently and producing
fewer wastes;
(f) Support the promotion of less polluting and more efficient
technologies and processes in industries, taking into account area-specific
accessible potentials for energy, particularly safe and renewable sources
of energy, with a view to limiting industrial pollution, and adverse
impacts on the atmosphere.
4. Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use
Basis for action
9.19. Land-use and resource policies will both affect and be affected by
changes in the atmosphere. Certain practices related to terrestrial and
marine resources and land use can decrease greenhouse gas sinks and
increase atmospheric emissions. The loss of biological diversity may
reduce the resilience of ecosystems to climatic variations and air
pollution damage. Atmospheric changes can have important impacts on
forests, biodiversity, and freshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as on
economic activities, such as agriculture. Policy objectives in different
sectors may often diverge and will need to be handled in an integrated
manner.
Objectives
9.20. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To promote terrestrial and marine resource utilization and
appropriate land-use practices that contribute to:
(i) The reduction of atmospheric pollution and/or the limitation of
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;
(ii) The conservation, sustainable management and enhancement, where
appropriate, of all sinks for greenhouse gases;
(iii) The conservation and sustainable use of natural and
environmental resources;
(b) To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric changes and
their socio-economic and ecological impacts are fully taken into account in
planning and implementing policies and programmes concerning terrestrial
and marine resources utilization and land-use practices.
Activities
9.21. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and
economic measures, in order to encourage environmentally sound land-use
practices;
(b) Implement policies and programmes that will discourage
inappropriate and polluting land-use practices and promote sustainable
utilization of terrestrial and marine resources;
(c) Consider promoting the development and use of terrestrial and
marine resources and land-use practices that will be more resilient to
atmospheric changes and fluctuations;
(d) Promote sustainable management and cooperation in the
conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of
greenhouse gases, including biomass, forests and oceans, as well as other
terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems.
C. Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion
Basis for action
9.22. Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the growing concern
about the continuing depletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer by
reactive chlorine and bromine from man-made CFCs, halons and related
substances. While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer (as amended in London in 1990) were important steps in
international action, the total chlorine loading of the atmosphere of
ozone-depleting substances has continued to rise. This can be changed
through compliance with the control measures identified within the
Protocol.
Objectives
9.23. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna Convention and
the Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments, including the consideration
in those instruments of the special needs and conditions of the developing
countries and the availability to them of alternatives to substances that
deplete the ozone layer. Technologies and natural products that reduce
demand for these substances should be encouraged;
(b) To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface as a consequence of
depletion and modification of the stratospheric ozone layer.
Activities
9.24. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
(a) Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol and its 1990
amendments; pay their contributions towards the Vienna/Montreal trust funds
and the interim multilateral ozone fund promptly; and contribute, as
appropriate, towards ongoing efforts under the Montreal Protocol and its
implementing mechanisms, including making available substitutes for CFCs
and other ozone-depleting substances and facilitating the transfer of the
corresponding technologies to developing countries in order to enable them
to comply with the obligations of the Protocol;
(b) Support further expansion of the Global Ozone Observing System
by facilitating - through bilateral and multilateral funding - the
establishment and operation of additional systematic observation stations,
especially in the tropical belt in the southern hemisphere;
(c) Participate actively in the continuous assessment of scientific
information and the health and environmental effects, as well as of the
technological/economic implications of stratospheric ozone depletion; and
consider further actions that prove warranted and feasible on the basis of
these assessments;
(d) Based on the results of research on the effects of the
additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, consider
taking appropriate remedial measures in the fields of human health,
agriculture and marine environment;
(e) Replace CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances, consistent
with the Montreal Protocol, recognizing that a replacement's suitability
should be evaluated holistically and not simply based on its contribution
to solving one atmospheric or environmental problem.
D. Transboundary atmospheric pollution
Basis for action
9.25. Transboundary air pollution has adverse health impacts on humans and
other detrimental environmental impacts, such as tree and forest loss and
the acidification of water bodies. The geographical distribution of
atmospheric pollution monitoring networks is uneven, with the developing
countries severely underrepresented. The lack of reliable emissions data
outside Europe and North America is a major constraint to measuring
transboundary air pollution. There is also insufficient information on the
environmental and health effects of air pollution in other regions.
9.26. The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, and
its protocols, have established a regional regime in Europe and North
America, based on a review process and cooperative programmes for
systematic observation of air pollution, assessment and information
exchange. These programmes need to be continued and enhanced, and their
experience needs to be shared with other regions of the world.
Objectives
9.27. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To develop and apply pollution control and measurement
technologies for stationary and mobile sources of air pollution and to
develop alternative environmentally sound technologies;
(b) To observe and assess systematically the sources and extent of
transboundary air pollution resulting from natural processes and
anthropogenic activities;
(c) To strengthen the capabilities, particularly of developing
countries, to measure, model and assess the fate and impacts of
transboundary air pollution, through, inter alia, exchange of information
and training of experts;
(d) To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate transboundary air
pollution resulting from industrial and nuclear accidents, natural
disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of natural
resources;
(e) To encourage the establishment of new and the implementation of
existing regional agreements for limiting transboundary air pollution;
(f) To develop strategies aiming at the reduction of emissions
causing transboundary air pollution and their effects.
Activities
9.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and financial
institutions, should:
(a) Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements for
transboundary air pollution control and cooperate, particularly with
developing countries, in the areas of systematic observation and
assessment, modelling and the development and exchange of emission control
technologies for mobile and stationary sources of air pollution. In this
context, greater emphasis should be put on addressing the extent, causes,
health and socio-economic impacts of ultraviolet radiation, acidification
of the environment and photo-oxidant damage to forests and other
vegetation;
(b) Establish or strengthen early warning systems and response
mechanisms for transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial
accidents and natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental
destruction of natural resources;
(c) Facilitate training opportunities and exchange of data,
information and national and/or regional experiences;
(d) Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateral bases to
assess transboundary air pollution, and elaborate and implement programmes
identifying specific actions to reduce atmospheric emissions and to address
their environmental, economic, social and other effects.
Means of implementation
International and regional cooperation
9.29. Existing legal instruments have created institutional structures
which relate to the purposes of these instruments, and relevant work should
primarily continue in those contexts. Governments should continue to
cooperate and enhance their cooperation at the regional and global levels,
including cooperation within the United Nations system. In this context
reference is made to the recommendations in chapter 38 of Agenda 21
(International institutional arrangements).
Capacity-building
9.30. Countries, in cooperation with the relevant United Nations bodies,
international donors and non-governmental organizations, should mobilize
technical and financial resources and facilitate technical cooperation with
developing countries to reinforce their technical, managerial, planning and
administrative capacities to promote sustainable development and the
protection of the atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.
Human resource development
9.31. Education and awareness-raising programmes concerning the promotion
of sustainable development and the protection of the atmosphere need to be
introduced and strengthened at the local, national and international levels
in all relevant sectors.
Financial and cost evaluation
9.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area A to
be about $640 million from the international community on grant or
concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates
only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter
alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
9.33. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of the four-part programme
under programme area B to be about $20 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by
Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
9.34. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area C to
be in the range of $160-590 million on grant or concessional terms. These
are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any
that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
9.35. The Conference secretariat has included costing for technical
assistance and pilot programmes under paragraphs 9.32 and 9.33.
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Notes
1/ New and renewable energy sources are solar thermal, solar
photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ocean, animal and human
power, as referred to in the reports of the Committee on the Development
and Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy, prepared
specifically for the Conference (see A/CONF.151/PC/119 and
A/AC.218/1992/5).
2/ This includes standards or recommendations promoted by regional
economic integration organizations.
END OF CHAPTER 9
.
================RRojas Research Unit/1996=============================
