World Resources 1996-97
(A joint publication by The World Resource Institute, The United
Nations Environment Programme, The United Nations Development
Programme, and the World Bank)
(Edited by Dr. Róbinson Rojas)
1. Cities and the Environment
References and Notes
1. United Nations (U. N.) Population Division, World Urbanization
Prospects: The 1994 Revision (U. N., New York, 1995), p. 87.
2. Ibid., pp. 86-87, 102-103.
3. Op. cit. 1, p. 27.
4. Op. cit. 1, pp. 132, 135.
5. Carl Bartone et al., "Toward Environmental Strategies for Cities:
Policy Considerations for Urban Environmental Management in
Developing Countries," Urban Management Programme Policy Paper No. 18
(The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1994), pp. 9-10.
6. G. Watters, Health and Environment, World Health Organization,
Geneva, 1995 (personal communication).
7. Jorge E. Hardoy, Diana Mitlin, and David Satterthwaite, Environmental
Problems in Third World Cities (Earthscan, London, 1992), p. 58.
8. Dietrich Schwela, "Public Health Implications of Urban Air Pollution
in Developing Countries," paper presented at the Tenth World Clean
Air Congress, Erjos, Finland, May 28 to June 2, 1995 (World Health
Organization, Geneva, 1995).
9. World Resources Institute, The 1994 Information Please Environmental
Almanac (Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1994), pp. 205, 209.
10. National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), Urban Environmental
Maps: Delhi, Bombay, Vadodara, Ahmedabad (NIUA, New Delhi,
India, 1994), pp. 2. 21 to 2. 22.
11. Op. cit. 1.
12. Op. cit. 1, p. 27.
13. Op. cit. 1, pp. 81, 85.
14. Op. cit. 1, pp. 91, 107.
15. Jorge Gavidia, "Housing and Land in Large Cities of Latin America,"
in Enhancing the Management of Metropolitan Living Environments in
Latin America (United Nations Centre for Regional Development,
Nagoya, Japan, 1994), p. 19.
16. Op. cit. 1, pp. 87, 89, 103, 105.
17. Op. cit. 1, pp. 87, 89, 103, 105.
18. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), An Urbanizing
World: Global Report on Human Settlements 1996 (Oxford University
Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, and New York, in press), p. 1-27.
19. Ibid., pp. 1-27 to 1-28.
20. Op. cit. 1, p. 27.
21. Nick Devas and Carole Rakodi, "The Urban Challenge" in Managing
Fast Growing Cities, Nick Devas and Carole Rakodi, eds. (Longman
Group, Essex, United Kingdom, and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1993), p. 2.
22. Op. cit. 1, p. 23.
23. Op. cit. 1, pp. 110-111.
24. Op. cit. 6.
25. A. Rossi-Espagnet, G. B. Goldstein, and I. Tabibzadeh,
"Urbanization and Health in Developing Countries: A Challenge for
Health for All," World Health Statistics Quarterly, Vol. 44,
No. 4 (1991), p. 208.
26. Op. cit. 1, pp. 4, 6.
27. Op. cit. 1, p. 167.
28. Op. cit. 1, p. 6.
29. Op. cit. 18, pp. 1-16--1-17.
30. Op. cit. 18, pp. 1-19, 1-21.
31. Op. cit. 18, p. 1-16.
32. Op. cit. 1, p. 10.
33. The World Bank, Indonesia Environment and Development: Challenges
for the Future (The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1994), p. 117.
34. K. C. Sivaramakrishnan, "Changes in the Urban Landscape: From
Habitat I to Habitat II, Issues of Governance: Local Realities,"
draft paper prepared for the Woodrow Wilson International Center
for Scholars, May 16, 1995, p. 2.
35. Op. cit. 18, p. 1-18.
36. Op. cit. 18, p. 1-22.
37. Alain Bertaud, "Land Resources: Differing Perspectives on the
Shape of Future Cities-- Overview," in The Human Face of the Urban
Environment, Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference
on Environmentally Sustainable Development, Ismail Serageldin,
Michael A. Cohen, and K. C. Sivaramakrishnan, eds., The World Bank,
Washington, D. C., September 19-21, 1994, p. 235.
38. Op. cit. 34, p. 1.
39. D. R. Phillips and Y. Verhasselt, eds., Health and Development
(Routledge, New York, 1994).
40. Institute for Resource Development, Demographic and Health Surveys,
data compiled from 59 country surveys conducted between 1984 and
1994, Columbia, Maryland.
41. The World Bank, Urban Policy and Economic Development: An Agenda
for the 1990s (The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1991), p. 18.
42. Hank V. Savitch and Hyung-Ki Ahn, "Change Since Habitat I: A
Paradigmatic Inquiry," paper presented at the Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars, Washington, D. C., February 28,
1995, p. 8.
43. Op. cit. 21, p. 25.
44. Per Ljung and Catherine Farvacque, "Addressing the Urban Challenge:
A Review of World Bank FY87 Water Supply and Urban Development
Operations," Report INU-13 (The World Bank, Washington, D. C.,
1988), as cited in George E. Peterson, G. Thomas Kingsley, and
Jeffrey P. Telgarsky, Urban Economies and National Development
(U. S. Agency for International Development Office of Housing
and Urban Programs, Washington, D. C., 1991), p. 17.
45. Saskia Sassen, Cities in a World Economy (Pine Forge Press,
Thousand Oaks, California, 1994), p. xiv.
46. Ibid.
47. Op. cit. 45, p. 5.
48. Op. cit. 34, p. 4.
49. Op. cit. 18, p. 1-24.
50. Terence G. McGee and C. J. Griffiths, "Global Urbanization:
Towards the Twenty-First Century," in Population Distribution
and Migration, draft proceedings of the United Nations Expert
Meeting on Population Distribution and Migration, Santa Cruz,
Bolivia, January 18þ22, 1993 (United Nations, New York, August
1994), pp. 61, 63.
51. Op. cit. 18, p. 1-24.
52. Op. cit. 18, pp. 1-24--1-25.
53. Op. cit. 50, p. 60.
54. Op. cit. 21, p. 24.
55. Mike Parnwell, Population Movements and the Third World
(Routledge, London, 1993), pp. 18-24.
56. Op. cit. 18, p. 1-24.
57. Josef Gugler, "Overurbanization Reconsidered," in The Urbanization
of the Third World, Josef Gugler, ed. (Oxford University Press,
Oxford, United Kingdom, 1988), p. 83.
58. Op. cit. 55, p. 87.
59. George E. Peterson, G. Thomas Kingsley, and Jeffrey P. Telgarsky,
Urban Economies and National Development (U. S. Agency for
International Development Office of Housing and Urban Programs,
Washington, D. C., 1991), p. 7.
60. The World Bank, World Development Report 1995: Workers in an
Integrating World (The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1995), p. 35.
61. United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean (ECLAC), Social Panorama of Latin America, 1994 (ECLAC,
Santiago, Chile, 1994), p. 25.
62. Nick Devas, "Evolving Approaches," in Managing Fast Growing Cities:
New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in the Developing
World, Nick Devas and Carole Rakodi, eds. (Longman Group,
Essex, U. K., 1993), pp. 77þ78.
63. A. S. Oberai, Population Growth, Employment and Poverty in
Third-World Mega- Cities: Analytical and Policy Issues
(St. Martin's Press, New York, 1993), pp. 62-67.
64. G. Shabbir Cheema, "The Challenge of Urban Management: Some
Issues," in Urban Management: Policies and Innovations in
Developing Countries, G. Shabbir Cheema, ed. (Praeger, Westport,
Connecticut, and London, 1993), p. 12.
65. Michael Douglass, Chairman, Department of Urban and Regional
Planning, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii,
1995 (personal communication).
66. Op. cit. 61.
67. The World Bank, Structural Adjustment and Sustainable Growth:
The Urban Agenda for the 1990s (The World Bank, Washington, D. C.,
1990), p. 3, as cited in United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), The Urban Environment in Developing Countries (UNDP,
New York, 1992), p. 16.
68. The World Bank, Structural Adjustment and Sustainable Growth:
The Urban Agenda for the 1990s (The World Bank, Washington,
D. C., 1990), p. 5, as cited in United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), The Urban Environment in Developing
Countries (UNDP, New York, 1992), p. 16.
69. Ellen Wratten, "Conceptualizing Urban Poverty," Environment and
Urbanization, Vol. 7, No. 1 (April 1995), p. 11.
70. Op. cit. 61, p. 157.
71. Op. cit. 61, p. 157.
72. Op. cit. 18, p. 3-25.
73. Yeu-Man Yeung, "Past Approaches and Emerging Challenges," in The
Urban Poor and Basic Infrastructure Services in Asia and the
Pacific, Vol. 1, Proceedings of the Regional Seminar, Manila,
Philippines, January 22-28, 1991 (Asian Development Bank and
Economic Development Institute, Manila, Philippines, 1991), p. 35.
74. Op. cit. 18, p. 3-26.
75. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Cities, People,
& Poverty: Urban Development Cooperation for the 1990s (UNDP,
New York, 1991), p. 19.
76. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) International Child
Development Centre, "Crisis in Mortality, Health, and Nutrition,"
Economies in Transition Studies Regional Monitoring Report No. 2
(UNICEF, Florence, Italy, 1994), p. 3.
77. Ibid.
78. Op. cit. 69, pp. 19-21.
79. Michael Cohen, "The Hypothesis of Urban Convergence: Are Cities in
the North and South Becoming More Alike?" draft paper,
February 22, 1995, Washington, D. C., p. 2.
80. John D. Kasarda, "Cities as Places Where People Live and Work: Urban
Change and Neighborhood Distress," in Interwoven Destinies, Henry
Cisneros, ed. (W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 1994), p. 83.
81. Philip Amis and Carole Rakodi, "Urban Poverty: Issues for Research
and Policy," Journal of International Development: Policy, Economics
and International Relations, Vol. 6, No. 5 (September-October 1994),
p. 630.
82. Ibid.
83. Op. cit. 60, pp. 43-45.
84. United Nations (U. N.) Development Programme (UNDP), Human
Development Report 1995 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, United
Kingdom, and New York, 1995), pp. 66-68.
85. Caroline O. N. Moser, Alicia J. Herbert, and Roza E. Makonnen,
"Urban Poverty in the Context of Structural Adjustment: Recent
Evidence and Policy Responses," Transportation, Water, and Urban
Development Department Discussion Paper No. 4 (The World Bank,
Washington, D. C., 1993), p. 22.
86. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), The Urban Environment
in Developing Countries (UNDP, New York, 1992), p. 16.
87. Ibid., p. 18.
88. Op. cit. 25, p. 205.
89. Depending on the definition used, estimates of the number of street
children range from 10 million to 100 million. UNICEF has accepted
100 million as a reasonable estimate, using a definition that
encompasses children who are sent into the streets by their
parents to find income-earning opportunities, children who
voluntarily break ties with their family or see them only
infrequently, and orphans.
90. Caroline Moser, Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice
and Training (Routledge, New York, 1993), p. 17.
91. United Nations (U. N.), The World's Women 1970-1990: Trends and
Statistics (U. N., New York, 1991), p. 17.
92. Op. cit. 85, p. 4.
93. Op. cit. 18, p. 1-13.
94. Op. cit. 18, p. 1-13.
95. David Satterthwaite, "Health and Environmental Problems in the
Cities of Developing Countries," in Population Distribution and
Migration, Proceedings of the United Nations (U. N.) Expert Meeting
on Population Distribution and Migration, Santa Cruz, Bolivia,
18-22 January 1993 (U. N., New York, August 1994), p. 183.
96. Michael Douglass, "The Political Economy of Urban Poverty and
Environmental Management: Access, Empowerment and Community Based
Alternatives," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 4, No. 2
(October 1992), pp. 15-16.
97. The World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health
(The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1993), p. 90.
98. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report
1990 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1990), p. 86.
99. Tim Campbell, "Environmental Dilemmas and the Urban Poor," in
Environment and the Poor: Development Strategies for a Common
Agenda, H. Jeffrey Leonard, ed. (Overseas Development Council,
Washington, D. C., 1989), p. 177.
100. United Nations Environment Programme, Environmental Data Report
(Basil Blackwell, Oxford, United Kingdom, 1991), p. 288.
101. Patricia McCarney, "Urban Research in the Developing World: Four
Approaches to the Environment of Cities," in Urban Research in the
Developing World: Towards an Agenda for the 1990s, Richard Stren,
ed. (University of Toronto, Toronto, 1994), p. 41.
102. Janis D. Bernstein, "Land Use Considerations in Urban Environmental
Management," Urban Management Programme Discussion Paper No. 12
(The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1994), p. 17.
103. Op. cit. 99.
104. Op. cit. 101.
105. Porus Olpadwala and William W. Goldsmith, "The Sustainability of
Privilege: Reflections on the Environment, the Third World City,
and Poverty," World Development, Vol. 20, No. 4 (1992), p. 630.
106. Op. cit. 96.
107. Debra J. Brody et al., "Blood Lead Levels in the U. S. Population:
Phase 1 of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey (NHANES III, 1988 to 1991)," Journal of the American Medical
Association, Vol. 272, No. 4 (July 27, 1994), p. 277.
108. Rodney R. White, Urban Environmental Management: Environmental
Change and Urban Design (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, United
Kingdom, 1994), pp. 71, 73.
109. For further reading on environmental justice, see Robert
D. Bullard, Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental
Quality (Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1994), United
Church of Christ Commission for Racial Justice, Toxic Wastes
and Race in the United States: A National Report on the Racial
and Socio-Economic Characteristics of Communities with Hazardous
Waste Sites (United Church of Christ, New York, 1987), and Bunyan
Bryant and Paul Mohai, eds., Race and the Incidence of
Environmental Hazards: A Time for Discourse (Westview Press,
Boulder, Colorado, 1992).
110. Carlos A. Linares, Daniel A. Seligman, and Daniel B. Tunstall,
"Developing Urban Environmental Indicators in Third World Cities,"
draft final report presented to U. S. Agency for International
Development (World Resources Institute, Washington, D. C.,
April 26, 1993), p. 5.
111. Ibid., pp. 5-6.
112. Op. cit. 5, p. 22.
113. Ellen Brennan, "Mega-City Management and Innovation Strategies:
Regional Views," in Mega-City Growth and the Future, Roland J. Fuchs
et al., eds. (United Nations University Press, New York, 1994),
p. 250.
114. Gordon McGranahan, "Household Environmental Problems in Low-Income
Cities: An Overview of Problems and Prospects for Improvement,"
Habitat International, Vol. 17, No. 2 (1993), p. 105.
115. Op. cit. 108, pp. 1-14.
116. Op. cit. 5, p. 16.
117. Op. cit. 110, p. 16.
118. Op. cit. 101, p. 9.
119. Among the international organizations working on the brown agenda
are The World Bank, the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
(Habitat), the United Nations Development Programme, and the
U. S. Agency for International Development.
120. The number of research institutions focusing on the brown agenda
are too numerous to cover here, but include institutions such as
the University of Toronto, Centre for Urban and Community Studies;
the Department of City and Regional Planning, University of Wales,
Cardiff; the National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi,
India; the International Institute for Environment and
Development, Buenos Aires, Argentina; and the Mazingira Institute,
Nairobi, Kenya.
121. For a partial listing of nongovernmental organizations working on
the brown agenda, see United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
(Habitat), Directory of Non-Governmental Organizations in the Field
of Human Settlements (Habitat, Nairobi, Kenya, 1993). The journal
Environment and Urbanization also regularly publishes profiles of
nongovernmental organizations working on human settlements.
122. Op. cit. 99, p. 173.
123. Op. cit. 6.
124. Op. cit. 7, pp. 43-45.
125. P. K. Roy, "Lucknow: Slow Death of a Water Source," The Hindu
Survey of the Environment 1994 (May 31, 1994), pp. 119-122.
126. Arunkumar Bhatt, "Rujkot: Chronic Scarcity," The Hindu Survey of
the Environment 1994 (May 31, 1994), pp. 113-117.
127. World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF) Joint Water Supply and Sanitation Monitoring Programme,
Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Monitoring Report 1993 (WHO and
UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme, New York and Geneva, 1993),
Figure 1, pp. 10, 18.
128. United Nations (U. N.) Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific, State of Urbanization in Asia and the Pacific 1993
(U. N., New York, 1993), p. 2- 45.
129. Carolyn Stephens et al., Environment and Health in Developing
Countries: An Analysis of Intra-Urban Differentials Using Existing
Data (London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine in collaboration
with Fundacao SEADE, and Ghana Ministry of Environment, London,
1994), pp. 23, 57.
130. National Research Council, Academia de la Investigacion Cientifica,
A. C., and Academia Nacional de Ingenieria, A. C., Mexico City's
Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability (National
Academy Press, Washington, D. C., 1995), p. 56.
131. John Briscoe, "When the Cup Is Half Full: Improving Water and
Sanitation Services in the Developing World," Environment, Vol. 35,
No. 4 (1993), p. 10.
132. Ibid.
133. Op. cit. 6.
134. Op. cit. 127, Figure 2, pp. 11, 19.
135. Op. cit. 97.
136. The World Bank, World Development Report 1992: Development and
the Environment (The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1992), p. 49.
137. World Health Organization (WHO), The World Health Report 1995:
Bridging the Gaps (WHO, Geneva, 1995), p. 10.
138. Op. cit. 131, p. 15.
139. Carter Brandon and Ramesh Ramankutty, "Toward an Environmental
Strategy for Asia," World Bank Discussion Paper No. 224 (The World
Bank, Washington, D. C., 1993), p. 49.
140. The World Bank, Chile, Managing Environmental Problems: Economic
Analysis of Selected Issues (The World Bank, Washington, D. C.,
December 1994), p. 9.
141. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD),
Environmental Indicators (OECD, Paris, 1994), p. 49.
142. National Research Council, Committee on Wastewater Management for
Coastal Urban Areas, Managing Wastewater in Coastal Urban Areas
(National Academy Press, Washington, D. C., 1993), pp. 32, 61-62.
143. Douglas F. Barnes et al., "Urban Energy Transitions, Poverty, and
the Environment: Understanding the Role of the Urban Household
Energy in Developing Countries," draft paper (The World Bank,
Washington, D. C., September 1994), p. 15.
144. Op. cit. 97, p. 91.
145. Op. cit. 97, p. 91.
146. Kirk R. Smith and Youcheng Liu, "Indoor Air Pollution in Developing
Countries," in Epidemiology of Lung Cancer, Jonathan M. Samet, ed.
(Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1994), pp. 154-163.
147. Op. cit. 136, p. 52.
148. Op. cit. 137, Table 5, pp. 18-19.
149. Op. cit. 8.
150. World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme,
Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World (Blackwell Reference,
Oxford, United Kingdom, 1992), p. 39.
151. Op. cit. 5, p. 11.
152. Op. cit. 136, p. 52.
153. Op. cit. 136, p. 52.
154. Op. cit. 141, p. 75.
155. Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel, "The Risks of Exposure: The Challenge
of Urban Air Pollution--Overview," in The Human Face of the Urban
Environment, Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference
on Environmentally Sustainable Development, Ismail Serageldin,
Michael A. Cohen, and K. C. Sivaramakrishnan, eds. (The World Bank,
Washington, D. C., September 19þ21, 1994), p. 60.
156. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) and
European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT), Urban Travel
and Sustainable Development (ECMT and OECD, Paris, 1995), pp. 33-63.
157. Op. cit. 97, p. 96.
158. Asif Faiz and Surhid Gautam, "Motorization, Urbanization, and Air
Pollution," discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, D. C.,
1994), p. 8.
159. Op. cit. 136, p. 124.
160. Op. cit. 136, p. 18.
161. Op. cit. 136, p. 18.
162. Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning and Environmental Defense
Fund, The Global Dimensions of Lead Poisoning: An Initial Analysis
(Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning, Washington, D. C., 1994),
p. 26.
163. United States Agency for International Development (U. S. AID),
Comparing Environmental Health Risks in Cairo, Egypt, Vol. II:
Technical Annexes, draft paper (U. S. AID, Washington, D. C., 1994),
p. A-3.
164. United States Agency for International Development (U. S. AID),
Ranking Environmental Health Risks in Bangkok, Thailand, Vol. II:
Technical Appendices (U. S. AID, Washington, D. C., December 1990),
p. A-8.
165. Op. cit. 162.
166. Op. cit. 162.
167. John L. Innes, Forest Health: Its Assessment and Status (CAB
International, Oxon, United Kingdom, 1993), p. 42.
168. William M. Ciesla and Edwin Donaubauer, Decline and Dieback of Trees
and Forests: A Global Overview, Forestry Paper No. 120 (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1994), p. 61.
169. Op. cit. 95, p. 184.
170. Op. cit. 5, p. 26.
171. Gail Rothe and Eduardo Perez, "Planning for Urban Environmental
Health Programs in Central America," WASH Field Report No. 420
(United States Agency for International Development, Washington,
D. C., October 1993), p. 16.
172. Yok-shiu F. Lee, "Urban Planning and Vector Control in Southeast
Asian Cities," Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Science, Vol. 10 (1994),
p. S-44.
173. United Nations Environment Programme, Environmental Data Report
1993-94 (Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, United Kingdom, 1993),
p. 331.
174. The small decline in arisings in Germany can be explained by the
increase in the separate collection of recyclable materials such
as glass and paper.
175. Op. cit. 141, p. 93.
176. Eugene Linden, "Megacities," Time, Vol. 141, No. 2 (January 11,
1993), p. 36.
177. Op. cit. 173, p. 332.
178. Op. cit. 136, p. 55.
179. Op. cit. 7, pp. 63-64.
180. Op. cit. 7, p. 64.
181. Op. cit. 136, p. 55.
182. Op. cit. 7, p. 22.
183. Cheryl Simon Silver and Dale S. Rothman, "Toxics and Health: The
Potential Long- Term Effects of Industrial Activity," a report on
"A Workshop on the Effects of Industrial Activity on Human and
Ecosystem Health," The 2050 Project, Yulee, Florida, May 19-20,
1994, p. 41.
184. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Air Quality,
"EPA Air Quality Trends," EPA-4S4/F-95 003 (EPA, Washington, D. C.,
September 1995), p. 12.
185. Op. cit. 5, p. 103.
186. Op. cit. 5, p. 42.
187. Op. cit. 184, p. 8.
188. Op. cit. 128, p. 5-28.
189. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific (ESCAP), State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific,
1990 (ESCAP, Bangkok, Thailand, 1992), p. 71.
190. Op. cit. 5, p. 2.
191. The World Bank, World Development Report 1994: Infrastructure for
Development (The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1994), pp. 25-26.
192. J. David Foster, The Role of the City in Environmental Management:
1994 Edition (U. S. Agency for International Development,
Washington, D. C., 1994), p. 19.
193. Euisoon Shin et al., "Valuing the Economic Impacts of Environmental
Problems: Asian Cities," Urban Management Programme Discussion
Paper, working draft (The World Bank, Washington, D. C., 1994),
p. 139.
194. Apogee Research, Inc., "The Costs of Transportation: Final Report,"
prepared for The Conservation Law Foundation (March 1994), p. 12.
195. David Schrank, Shawn Turner, and Timothy Lomax, "Trends in Urban
Roadway Congestion--1982 to 1991, Volume 1: Annual Report,"
Research Report 1131-6, Vol. 1 (Texas Transportation Institute,
College Station, Texas, 1994), p. 32.
196. Richard Arnott and Kenneth Small, "The Economics of Traffic
Congestion," American Scientist, Vol. 82, No. 5 (September/
October 1994), p. 446.
197. James J. MacKenzie, Roger C. Dower, and Donald D. T. Chen,
The Going Rate: What It Really Costs to Drive (World Resources
Institute, Washington, D. C., 1992), pp. 18þ19.
198. Christine Furedy, "Incidental Greening--Saving Resources in Asian
Cities," in Green Cities: Ecologically Sound Approaches to Urban
Space, David Gordon, ed. (Black Rose Books, Montreal, 1990),
pp. 43-54, as cited in Patricia McCarney, "Urban Research in the
Developing World: Four Approaches to the Environment of Cities,"
in Urban Research in the Developing World: Towards an Agenda for
the 1990s, Richard Stren, ed. (University of Toronto, Toronto,
1994), p. 22.
199. Op. cit. 192, p. 3.
200. David Satterthwaite, "The Preventable Disease Burden in Cities,"
Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 5, No. 2 (October 1993), p. 5.
201. Ralph Torrie, "Findings and Policy Implications from the Urban
CO2 Reduction Project," International Council for Local
Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) Paper (ICLEI, Toronto,
January 1993), p. 7.
202. Op. cit. 172.
203. Exequiel Ezcurra and Marisa Mazari-Hiriart, "Are Mega-Cities
Viable? A Cautionary Tale from Mexico City," Environment,
Vol. 38, No. 1 (January/February 1996), p. 11.
204. Op. cit. 113.
205. Op. cit. 5, p. 34.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Urban Growth Patterns
What Fuels Urban Growth?
Urban Poverty
Urban Environmental Problems
Economic Costs of Urban Environmental Degradation
Confronting the Urban Environmental Challenge
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