The State of the World's Children 1999
Carol Bellamy, Executive Director, United Nations Children's Fund
Contents
Foreword by Kofi A. Annan, Secretary-General of the United
Nations
Chapter I
Education For All: Making the right a reality
The right to education
The education revolution
Investing in human rights
Chapter II
Statistics
General note on the data
Explanation of symbols
Under-five mortality rankings
Regional summaries country list
Tables
1 Basic indicators
2 Nutrition
3 Health
4 Education
5 Demographic indicators
6 Economic indicators
7 Women
8 The rate of progress
Panels
1 Education in free fall: A region in the midst of
transition
2 What children understand: The Monitoring Learning
Achievement project
3 Beyond the ruler: Competency-based learning in Tunisia
4 Second-hand computer, first-class vision: Thailand's
CHILD project
5 A Tanzanian school welcomes the disabled
6 The floating classroom: School clusters in Cambodia
7 Joyful learning: Empowering India's teachers
8 Which language for education?
9 A new beginning: Education in emergencies
10 In India: Helping the poor choose school
11 Egypt's community schools: A model for the education of
girls
12 The macho problem: Where boys are underachieving
13 Women educators push the limits for girls in Africa
14 Parent education: Supporting children's first teachers
Spotlights
Sub-Saharan Africa
Middle East and North Africa
South Asia
East Asia and the Pacific
Latin America and the Caribbean
Central and Eastern Europe, the Commonwealth of Independent
States, and the Baltic States
Industrialized countries
Text figures
Fig. 1 Children out of school
Fig. 2 Net primary enrolment, by region (around 1995)
Fig. 3 Reaching grade five, by region (around 1995)
Fig. 4 International milestones for education
Fig. 5 Net primary enrolment, by region (1960-2000)
Fig. 6 AIDS orphans: A looming education crisis in
Sub-Saharan Africa
Fig. 7 Primary enrolment: Where the boys and girls are
Fig. 8 Education's impact on child mortality
Fig. 9 At a glance: The gender gap in primary education
and related indicators
Fig. 10 Generational impact of educating girls
Fig. 11 Who benefits from public spending on education?
Fig. 12 School mapping
Fig. 13 MEENA: An animated advocate for girls' rights
Fig. 14 Cost of education for all by the year 2010
References
Glossary
Spotlights
Regional Spotlight
Sub-Saharan Africa
Enrolment: From only 25 per cent in 1960, the regional
primary enrolment rate climbed to nearly 60 per cent by
1980. After declining in the 1980s, enrolment is again close
to 60 per cent. Over 40 million primary school age children
are not in school. In nine countries, rural primary
enrolment lags significantly behind urban, with the gap
ranging from 26 percentage points in the Central African
Republic to 49 percentage points in Burkina Faso.
Gender: In 1960, almost twice as many boys as girls in the
region attended primary school. The gap has narrowed
considerably, with girls' primary attendance rate now 57 per
cent and boys' 61 per cent. Benin has the greatest disparity
in primary enrolment, with the girls' rate about 30
percentage points less than boys'. Only a third of women in
the region were literate in 1980; now, nearly half are
literate.
Effectiveness: In the region, one third of children enrolled
in primary school drop out before reaching grade five. Chad,
Comoros, the Congo and Gabon, with more than one third of
primary school students repeating grades, are among
countries with high repetition rates.
Constraints: Armed conflicts and economic pressures from
debt and structural adjustment policies have taken a severe
toll on education. The region includes over 30 heavily
indebted countries, and governments spend as much on debt
repayment as on health and basic education combined - $12
billion in 1996, and per capita education spending is less
than half that of 1980. Large class sizes, poor teacher
education, crumbling buildings and lack of learning
materials in a number of countries all reduce the quality of
education.
Progress and innovations: Among countries achieving primary
enrolment rates of 90 per cent or more are: Botswana, Cape
Verde, Malawi, Mauritius, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Malawi
made primary education free in 1994, and the attendance rate
is now over 80 per cent. When Uganda made primary education
free for four children per family in 1997, enrolment doubled
from 2.6 million to 5.2 million. The African Girl's
Education Initiative works with governments and communities
in over 20 countries to boost girls' enrolment.
Regional Spotlight
Middle East and North Africa
Enrolment: In 1970, about half of primary school age
children were enrolled. Now, about four out of five children
are in school. Oman, with no education system prior to 1970,
has about 70 per cent of primary school age children in
school. In Morocco, only about a third of children of this
age group in rural areas are in school, less than half the
rate in urban areas, and rural enrolment in Upper Egypt is
about 20 percentage points less than in Lower Egypt.
Gender: In 1960, only a third of girls in the region
attended primary school, compared with two thirds of boys.
Now, about three quarters of primary school age girls are
enrolled. The gap between girls' and boys' rates is more
than 10 percentage points. Yemen has the greatest gender
gap, with the girls' primary attendance rate over 30
percentage points less than boys'. Bahrain, Cyprus, Iran,
Jordan, Libya and Tunisia have high primary enrolment rates
and parity, or close to it, between boys and girls.
Effectiveness: About 9 out of 10 children who start primary
school reach grade five, though high drop-out and repetition
rates are a concern in some countries.
Constraints: Conflicts in Algeria, Sudan and the West Bank
and Gaza have disrupted education, and sanctions against
Iraq have led to school closings, loss of teachers and
increased drop-outs. Improved teacher training and curricula
are needed to upgrade the quality of education in the
region. Though the portion of expenditures by the region's
central governments allocated to education have been high,
education spending has recently fallen. Nearly half the
countries in the region have not ratified the Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women, a concern because the denial of women's rights
affects girls' education.
Progress and innovations: Iran is promoting education for
women and girls in rural areas, with girls' primary
attendance now over 90 per cent. Programmes in Egypt,
Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia and Yemen are bringing education to
girls in poor areas through community schools located closer
to their homes.
Regional Spotlight
South Asia
Enrolment: Primary enrolment has climbed from under 60 per
cent in 1970 to nearly 70 per cent. Over 50 million primary
school age children are not in school. There are significant
variations in enrolment within some countries. In India,
over 80 per cent of children in urban areas are in school,
but in rural areas the rate is 20 percentage points lower;
in the state of Kerala, 9 out of 10 primary school age
children go to school, while in Bihar only half do.
Gender: Nearly two thirds of women in the region are
illiterate, compared with about one third of men. The gap
between girls' and boys' primary enrolment rates is over 10
percentage points. Discrimination is most severe in war-torn
Afghanistan, where Taliban authorities have barred girls
from school. In Bangladesh, in contrast, the primary school
attendance rate is 75 per cent, with boys' and girls' rates
on a par.
Effectiveness: About 40 per cent of children entering
primary school drop out before reaching grade five, the
highest regional rate.
Constraints: Nearly half the population in the region lives
in severe poverty, earning less than $1 a day. Child labour
is a persistent problem, a cause and consequence of low
enrolment and high drop-out rates. Pupil-teacher ratios are
high in some countries (greater than 60 to 1 in India),
particularly in the early grades. Teacher education and
training need upgrading, and rural schools are often remote
and poor in quality.
Progress and innovations: In Mumbai (formerly Bombay), the
Pratham Mumbai Education Initiative, a partnership among
educators, community groups, corporate sponsors and
government officials, has set up 1,600 pre-schools and
helped revamp over 1,200 primary schools. The Northern Areas
Education Project in Pakistan, which seeks to improve
education quality and accessibility in poor and
disadvantaged areas, is training 720 teachers and
establishing 10 pilot community schools. In Bangladesh, the
Intensive District Approach to Education for All (IDEAL)
educates teachers about children's individual learning
patterns and promotes more child-friendly classrooms.
Regional Spotlight
East Asia and the Pacific
Enrolment: Net primary enrolment for the region is high, and
several countries will either achieve or come close to
achieving universal access to primary education by the end
of the decade. Disparities in enrolment remain between
countries, within countries (both Cambodia and Myanmar, for
example, have disparities of 40 per cent or more between
provinces) and, in a few cases, between boys and girls.
Gender: The gender gap in initial primary enrolment is
virtually closed. But completion is a problem, with gaps of
10 per cent or more in several countries (Cambodia,
Indonesia and the Lao PDR with a lower rate for girls, and
Mongolia with a lower rate for boys). The economic crisis in
many countries is expected to affect girls
disproportionately, as preference is given to sons, and
daughters are removed from school to help with household
work. The gender gap widens for girls in secondary school,
and nearly a quarter of the region's women are illiterate,
compared with fewer than 10 per cent of men.
Effectiveness: Several countries are on track to reach the
goal of 80 per cent of primary school entrants reaching
grade five, among them China, Fiji and several other Pacific
Island countries, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, and
Thailand. However, Cambodia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea and
Viet Nam have continuing problems of low completion.
Constraints: Attaining targets is especially difficult for
the hard-to-reach -- minorities, migrants, indigenous
peoples and the disabled. Economic and climatic crises
threaten education gains in several countries (Indonesia,
Mongolia and Thailand), with poor families unable to pay for
their children's education. Cambodia, the Lao PDR and Viet
Nam, with legacies of years of conflict, face persistent
poverty, as does Myanmar.
Progress and innovations: School cluster projects in several
countries group nearby schools to share resources and
expertise, improving overall educational quality. Multigrade
teaching programmes are also useful in reaching children in
remote areas, and initiatives in developing child-friendly
schools are meant to lead to higher rates of enrolment,
completion and achievement.
Regional Spotlight
Latin America and the Caribbean
Enrolment: Primary enrolment has grown rapidly, expanding at
an annual rate of 4.4 per cent between 1960 and 1980, with
gains continuing despite financial austerity in the 1980s.
Access to primary education is virtually universal, with
regional enrolment over 90 per cent. Guatemala and Haiti
have the lowest primary attendance rates, 58 per cent and 69
per cent respectively.
Gender: Although discrimination against girls and women is a
problem in the region, girls' primary enrolment has been on
a par with boys' for decades, and girls' secondary
enrolment, 51 per cent, tops boys', 47 per cent. In
Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Guyana, Uruguay and
Venezuela, the proportion of girls enrolled in secondary
school is higher than that of boys by 10 per cent or more.
The women's literacy rate is 85 per cent, and over three
quarters of primary school teachers are female, both rates
far higher than in any other developing region.
Effectiveness: High primary school drop-out and grade
repetition rates are a serious problem. One quarter of
children entering primary school drop out before reaching
grade five. Bolivia, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, El
Salvador, Haiti and Nicaragua have the highest drop-out
rates -- 40 per cent or more. In nearly half of the 21
countries with data, 10 per cent or more of children in
primary school are repeating grades. Brazil and Guatemala
have the highest repetition rates, both over 15 per cent.
However, the region's adult literacy rate is 87 per cent,
the highest in the developing world.
Constraints: High drop-out and repetition rates point to
problems in educational quality. The region has the greatest
economic disparities between rich and poor, and indigenous
and impoverished populations face difficulties in getting
access to quality education. Teaching approaches tend to be
rigid and traditional, which discourages students from
staying in school.
Progress and innovations: The primary school enrolment rate
has increased from under 60 per cent in 1960 to 90 per cent,
and the region has the highest teacher/population ratio in
the developing world. Escuela Nueva in Colombia has become a
model for flexible, community-based education: Guatemala set
up 1,000 community schools in 1997, and Brazil, Paraguay and
Peru are launching similar initiatives.
Regional Spotlight
Central and Eastern Europe, the Commonwealth of Independent
States, and the Baltic States
Enrolment: Universal access to free basic education was
attained by the early 1980s. Most countries have maintained
high primary enrolment rates; however, at least one child in
every seven of primary school age is out of school in
Croatia, Georgia, Latvia, the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. In countries of the
former Soviet Union, 32,000 pre-schools closed between 1991
and 1995, with big declines in enrolment in Armenia,
Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova and
Ukraine.
Gender: There is parity between boys' and girls' primary
enrolment and completion rates, and girls' secondary
enrolment rate is higher than boys' in a number of
countries.
Effectiveness: Though available primary school completion
rates are virtually all above 90 per cent, nearly one third
of the countries in the region have no completion data.
Constraints: There is concern about the quality of education
in a number of countries in the region. Conflicts in
Azerbaijan, Georgia, Tajikistan and former Yugoslavia have
taken a toll on education, and the region is beset with
social problems arising from political and economic
transition. Real public spending on education has fallen in
many countries -- by one third in the Russian Federation and
by three quarters or more in Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia
and Kyrgyzstan. Teachers' salaries are down in a number of
countries, and education costs for families have increased,
a constraint for poor and minority families. Many school
buildings are in need of repair, and heating is a problem in
winter in several countries.
Progress and innovations: Educational reform is on several
countries' agenda. Armenia, for example, is improving the
quality and relevance of curricula and promoting
decentralization and parental involvement. Education
initiatives to ease ethnic tensions and promote tolerance
are also under way in the region. UNICEF is encouraging
early childhood care and development through the Better
Parenting Initiative in Romania and the former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia.
Regional Spotlight
Industrialized countries
Enrolment: Primary enrolment in the industrialized countries
stands at close to 100 per cent. Secondary enrolment in
Western Europe increased from 90 per cent in 1985, the
lowest rate among industrialized areas, to universal
enrolment in 1995.
Gender: There is parity in boys' and girls' enrolment rates
at the primary and secondary levels. At the tertiary level,
girls' enrolment rates are more than 90 per cent in North
America, while the rate for boys is 75 per cent. While adult
literacy is almost universal, women account for over 60 per
cent of those adults who are not literate.
Effectiveness: In the 1960s, just over half of young people
in the industrialized countries completed upper secondary
school. By the 1980s, the proportion had risen to two thirds
and has continued to increase. These gains do not assure
effective education, however: In mathematics and science
tests of 13-years-olds, students from some East Asian and
Eastern European countries scored higher than those from a
number of industrialized countries. Also, an average of more
than 15 per cent of adults in 12 industrialized countries
are functionally illiterate; in Ireland, the United Kingdom
and the United States, the rates are over 20 per cent.
Constraints: Not surprisingly, poverty appears to lead to
lower academic achievement and higher drop-out rates. In
seven industrialized countries, 10 per cent or more of
children live in poverty, and in the United States the rate
is over 20 per cent. Children of minority groups and those
in one-parent families also face heightened risks.
Progress and innovations: Over three quarters of young
children in Western Europe are in pre-primary education
programmes, the highest rate among industrialized areas. In
several countries, large-scale pre-school programmes target
children at risk, including Head Start in the United States
(begun in the 1960s) and Priority Education Zones in France
and Better Beginnings, Better Futures in Ontario (Canada)
(both started in the 1980s). School systems are also
increasingly adapting curricula to reflect children's
diverse cultural backgrounds.
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