World Resources 1996-97
(A joint publication by The World Resource Institute, The United
 Nations Environment Programme, The United Nations Development
 Programme, and the World Bank)
(Data edited by Dr. Róbinson Rojas)

5. Urban Priorities for Action

References and Notes

1. Jorge Hardoy, Diana Mitlin, and David Satterthwaite, Environmental Problems in Third World Cities (Earthscan, London, 1992), pp. 17, 23.

2. Carl Bartone et al., "Toward Environmental Strategies for Cities: Policy Considerations for Urban Environmental Management in Developing Countries," Urban Management Programme Policy Paper No. 18 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 5.

3. Ibid., p. 7.

4. The World Bank, World Development Report 1992: Development and the Environment (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 5.

5. World Health Organization (WHO), The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (WHO, Geneva, 1992), p. 8.

6. G. Watters, Health and Environment, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1995 (personal communication).

7. Maggie Black, Mega-Slums: The Coming Sanitary Crisis (WaterAid, London, 1994), p. 18.

8. Sandy Cairncross, Sanitation and Water Supply: Practical Lessons from The Decade (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 1.

9. Op. cit. 7, p. 19.

10. Op. cit. 7, p. 19.

11. Op. cit. 7, p. 15.

12. Op. cit. 4, pp. 106-107.

13. Gehan Sinnatamby, "Low Cost Sanitation," in The Poor Die Young, Jorge E. Hardoy, Sandy Cairncross, and David Satterthwaite, eds. (Earthscan, London, 1990), pp. 127-157.

14. Op. cit. 1, p. 130.

15. John Pickford, "Training and Human Resource Development in Water Supply and Sanitation," Water International, Vol. 16, No. 3 (1991), p. 174.

16. Tova Maria Solo, Eduardo A. Perez, and Steven D. Joyce, "Constraints in Providing Water and Sanitation Services to the Urban Poor," Water and Sanitation for Health Proj-ect (WASH) Technical Report No. 85 (WASH, Washington, D.C., March 1993), p. 8.

17. William Hogrewe, Steven D. Joyce, and Eduardo A. Perez, "The Unique Challenges of Improving Peri-Urban Sanitation," Water and Sanitation for Health Project (WASH) Technical Report No. 86 (WASH, Washington, D.C., July 1993), p. 45.

18. Op. cit. 7, p. 21.

19. "Orangi Pilot Project," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 7, No. 2 (October 1995), pp. 228-230.

20. J.C.R. de Melo, "Sistemas Condominiais de Esgotos," Engenharia Sanitaria, Vol. 24, No. 2 (1985), pp. 237-238, as cited in John Briscoe, "When the Cup Is Half Full: Improving Water and Sanitation Services in the Developing World," Environment, Vol. 35, No. 4 (May 1993), p. 32.

21. United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women, "Women, Water, and Sanitation," in Women and the Environment: A Reader, Sally Sontheimer, ed. (Monthly Review Press, New York, 1991), p. 123.

22. Op. cit. 4, p. 113.

23. Yok-shiu F. Lee, "Rethinking Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Strategy in Developing Countries in the Humid Tropics: Lessons from the International Water Decade," East-West Center Reprints, Environment Series No. 9 (East-West Center, Honolulu, 1993), p. 553.

24. Lair Espinosa and Oscar A. Lopez Rivera, "UNICEF's Urban Basic Services Programme in Illegal Settlements in Guatemala City," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 6, No. 2 (October 1994), p. 19.

25. Dennis B. Warner and Louis Laugeri, "Health for All: The Legacy of the Water Decade," Water International, Vol. 16, No. 3 (1991), pp. 135-141.

26. National Research Council, Academia de la Investigacion Cientifica, A.C., and Academia Nacional de Ingenieria, A.C., Mexico City's Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1995), pp. 32-33.

27. Exequiel Ezcurra and Marisa Mazari- Hiriart, "Are Mega-Cities Viable? A Cautionary Tale from Mexico City," Environment, Vol. 38, No. 1 (January/February 1996), p. 14.

28. Ismail Serageldin, "Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Sustainability: The Financing Challenge," keynote address to the Ministerial Conference on Drinking Water and Environmental Sanitation: Implementing Agenda 21 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., March 1994), p. 10.

29. Ibid.

30. Op. cit. 28.

31. Op. cit. 23, p. 550.

32. Op. cit. 4, pp. 103-104.

33. D.A. Okun, "The Value of Water Supply and Sanitation in Development: An Assessment," American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 78, No. 11 (1988), pp. 1463-1467.

34. D. Whittington et al., "Household Demand for Improved Sanitation Services in Kumasi, Ghana: A Contingent Valuation Study," Water Resources Research, Vol. 29, No. 6 (1993), pp. 1539-1560.

35. David Pearce, Director, CESERGE, University College, London, December 1995 (personal communication).

36. John Briscoe, "When the Cup Is Half Full: Improving Water and Sanitation Services in the Developing World," Environment, Vol. 35, No. 4 (May 1993), p. 10.

37. Op. cit. 4, p. 100.

38. Op. cit. 36, p. 13.

39. Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA), "MWRA Long Range Water Supply Program," Progress Briefing (MWRA, Boston, Massachusetts, March 9, 1994), p. 1.

40. Stephen A. Estes-Smargiassi, "Living Within Our Means: A Successful Demand-Side Water Resources Plan for Boston," paper prepared for the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) (MWRA, Boston, 1994), p. 2.

41. Op. cit. 26, p. 56.

42. Op. cit. 4, p. 102.

43. Op. cit. 4, p. 103.

44. Op. cit. 4, p. 101.

45. Op. cit. 28, p. 9.

46. The World Bank Environment and Urban Development Division, Chile--Managing Environmental Problems: Economic Analysis of Selected Issues, Report No. 13061-CH (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 83.

47. Op. cit. 28, p. 2.

48. Op. cit. 28, p. 12.

49. United States General Accounting Office (GAO), Water Pollution: Information on the Use of Alternative Wastewater Treatment Systems, Report No. RCED-94-109 (GAO, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 2.

50. Op. cit. 28, p. 9.

51. National Research Council, Committee on Wastewater Management for Coastal Urban Areas, Managing Wastewater in Coastal Urban Areas (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1993), pp. 309-327.

52. Carl Bartone, "Water Quality and Urbanization in Latin America," Water International, Vol. 15 (1990), pp. 8-14.

53. Op. cit. 49, pp. 13-31.

54. Rodney Fujita, "New Approaches to Wastewater Treatment," Study Paper (Environmental Defense Fund, New York, 1993), p. 1.

55. Op. cit. 51, pp. 314-317.

56. Op. cit. 52, pp. 12-14.

57. Takashi Asano, "Reusing Urban Wastewater--An Alternative and a Reliable Water Resource," Water International, Vol. 19 (1994), pp. 36-42.

58. Janusz Niemczynowicz, "Urban Water Pollution in Developing Countries," Water Resources Journal, No. 24 (December 1994), p. 18.

59. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific, 1990 (ESCAP, Bangkok, Thailand, 1990), p. 234.

60. Janis D. Bernstein, "Alternative Approaches to Pollution Control and Waste Management: Regulatory and Economic Instruments," Urban Management Programme Discussion Paper No. 3 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993), pp. 10-11.

61. Ibid., p. 33.

62. Op. cit. 2, p. 26.

63. Carl Bartone, Transport, Water and Urban Development Department, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995 (personal communication).

64. United Nations Environment Programme, Environmental Data Report 1993-94 (Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U.K., 1993), p. 331.

65. Op. cit. 63.

66. Christine Furedy, "Solid Wastes in the Waste Economy: Socio-Cultural Aspects," paper presented at the Workshop on "The Waste Economy," National Institute for Scientific and Technical Forecasting, University of Toronto, and International Development Research Centre, Hanoi, Viet Nam, August 22-25, 1994, p. 3.

67. Ibid.

68. Christine Furedy, "Social Aspects of Solid Waste Recovery in Asian Cities," Environmental Sanitation Reviews, No. 30 (Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, December 1990), p. 17.

69. Op. cit. 66, p. 15.

70. Michael Yhdego, "Scavenging Solid Wastes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania," Waste Management and Research, Vol. 9 (1991), p. 263.

71. Op. cit. 68, p. 4.

72. Op. cit. 66, p. 7.

73. Christine Furedy, "Garbage: Exploring Non-Conventional Options in Asian Cities," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 4, No. 2 (October 1992), p. 52.

74. Op. cit. 1, p. 135.

75. Op. cit. 66, p. 6.

76. Local Initiative Facility for Urban Environment (LIFE), "LIFE Small Project Status Report--Latin America and the Caribbean," (United Nations Development Programme, New York, August 23, 1995), p. 5.

77. Hasan Poerbo, "Urban Solid Waste Management in Bandung: Towards an Integrated Resource Recovery System," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 3, No. 1 (April 1991), p. 63.

78. Op. cit. 73, p. 49.

79. Op. cit. 66, p. 6.

80. Op. cit. 66, p. 7.

81. Yok-shiu F. Lee, "An Overview of Solid Waste Management Privatization Experiences in Asia and the Pacific," East-West Center Paper (East-West Center, Honolulu, 1992), p. 5.

82. Ibid.

83. Op. cit. 81, p. 22.

84. Sandra Cointreau-Levine, "Private Sector Participation in Municipal Solid Waste Services in Developing Countries, Vol. 1: The Formal Sector," Urban Management Programme Discussion Paper No. 13 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 18.

85. Op. cit. 81, pp. 21-22.

86. Op. cit. 81, pp. 9-10.

87. Op. cit. 60, p. 55.

88. John E. Young and Aaron Sachs, "The Next Efficiency Revolution: Creating a Sustainable Materials Economy," Worldwatch Paper No. 121 (Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C., September 1994), p. 46.

89. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and The Conservation Foundation, Getting at the Source: Strategies for Reducing Municipal Solid Waste (WWF, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 3.

90. Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program, "Air Quality Management in Sri Lanka," Intercountry Study No. 1 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 22.

91. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), Application of Biomass- Energy Technologies (Habitat, Nairobi, Kenya, 1993), p. 41.

92. Robert Perlack and Milton Russell, "Energy and Environmental Policy in China," Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, Vol. 16 (1991), pp. 220-221.

93. L.D. Danny Harvey, "Tackling Urban CO2 Emissions in Toronto," Environment, Vol. 35, No. 7 (September 1993), p. 19.

94. Ibid.

95. Op. cit. 93.

96. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), Energy Efficiency Technologies for Central and Eastern Europe, OTA-E-562 (OTA, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 69.

97. International Institute for Energy Conservation (IIEC), "Superwindow Technology Leads to Super Savings," E-Notes, Vol. 2, No. 4 (IIEC, Washington, D.C., November 1992), p. 4.

98. World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme, World Resources 1994-95 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1994), p. 219.

99. Ibid., pp. 218-219.

100. Carter Brandon and Ramesh Ramankutty, "Toward an Environmental Strategy for Asia," World Bank Discussion Paper No. 224 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993), pp. 79-80.

101. Op. cit. 2, p. 13.

102. Yok-shiu F. Lee, "Urban Planning and Vector Control in Southeast Asian Cities," Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Science, Vol. 10 (1994), p. S39.

103. Op. cit. 2, p. 13.

104. Op. cit. 2, p. 13.

105. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), Evaluation of Experience with Initiating Enabling Shelter Strategies (Habitat, Nairobi, Kenya, 1991), p. 18.

106. Catherine Farvacque and Patrick McAuslan, "Reforming Urban Land Policies and Institutions in Developing Countries," Urban Management Program Policy Paper No. 5 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 51.

107. Ibid., p. 18.

108. Nick Devas, "Evolving Approaches," in Managing Fast Growing Cities: New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in the Developing World, Nick Devas and Carole Rakodi, eds. (Longman Group, Essex, U.K., and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1993), p. 63.

109. Marcia D. Lowe, "Shaping Cities," in State of the World 1992, Lester Brown, ed. (Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 121.

110. Op. cit. 108, pp. 75-76.

111. Op. cit. 105.

112. Op. cit. 105.

113. Michael Douglass, "The Political Economy of Urban Poverty and Environmental Management: Access, Empowerment and Community Based Alternatives," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 4, No. 2 (October 1992), pp. 15-16.

114. Op. cit. 102, pp. S45-S46.

115. U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S. AID), Regularizing the Informal Land Development Process, Vol. 2: Discussion Papers (U.S. AID, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. ix.

116. Sylvy Jaglin, "Why Mobilize Town Dwellers?--Joint Management in Ouagadougou (1983-1990)," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 6, No. 2 (October 1994), pp. 113-114.

117. Op. cit. 108, p. 83.

118. Michael Mattingly, "Urban Management Intervention in Land Markets," in Managing Fast Growing Cities: New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in the Developing World, Nick Devas and Carole Rakodi, eds. (Longman Group, Essex, U.K., and John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1993), p. 122.

119. Stephen Olsen, Director, Coastal Resources Management Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, Rhode Island, March 1995 (personal communication).

120. Janis D. Bernstein, "Land Use Considerations in Urban Environmental Management," Urban Management Programme Discussion Paper No. 12 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 67.

121. Ibid.

122. Carole Rakodi and Nick Devas, "Conclusions: Assessing the New Approaches," in Managing Fast Growing Cities: New Approaches to Urban Planning and Management in the Developing World, Nick Devas and Carole Rakodi, eds. (Longman Group, Essex, U.K., and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1993), p. 277.

123. Donald T. Iannone, "Redeveloping Urban Brownfields," Landlines, Vol. 7, No. 6 (Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, November 1995), p. 1.

124. United Kingdom (U.K.) Department of the Environment, City Challenge: Partnerships Regenerating England's Urban Areas (U.K. Department of the Environment, London, 1994), pp. 1-32.

125. Kyung-Hwan Kim, "Controlled Development and Densification: Seoul, Korea," in The Human Face of the Urban Environment, Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development, Ismail Serageldin, Michael Cohen, and K.C. Sivaramakrishnan, eds. (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., September 19-21, 1994), p. 248.

126. Jim Sayer, "Green Edges for Healthy Cities," The Urban Ecologist: The Journal of Urban Ecology (Spring 1994), p. 4.

127. Virginia Jimenez Diaz, "Landslides in the Squatter Settlements of Caracas: Towards a Better Understanding of Causative Factors," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 4, No. 2 (October 1992), p. 84.

128. Op. cit. 120, p. 73.

129. Op. cit. 100, pp. 78-79.

130. Op. cit. 100, pp. 78-79.

131. Michael Replogle, "Best Practices in Transportation Modeling for Air Quality Planning," paper prepared for the Environmental Defense Fund (Environmental Defense Fund, Washington, D.C., December 1991), p. 12.

132. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 1994 (UNDP, New York, 1994), p. 173.

133. Op. cit. 105.

134. William P. Anderson, Pavlos S. Kanaroglou, and Eric J. Miller, "Urban Form, Energy, and the Environment: A Review of Issues, Evidence, and Policy," Urban Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1 (1996), forthcoming.

135. Mark Roseland, Toward Sustainable Communities: A Resource Book for Municipal and Local Governments (National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, Ottawa, Canada, 1992), pp. 38-39.

136. For a literature review of comparisons of urban form and energy use, see William P. Anderson, Pavlos S. Kanaroglou, and Eric J. Miller, "Urban Form, Energy, and the Environment: A Review of Issues, Evidence, and Policy," Urban Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1 (1996), forthcoming.

137. Op. cit. 108, p. 88.

138. Tommy Firman and Ida Ayu Indira Dharmapatni, "The Challenges to Sustainable Development in Jakarta Metropolitan Region," Habitat International, Vol. 18, No. 3 (1994), p. 83.

139. Jonas Rabinovitch and Josef Leitmann, "Environmental Innovation and Management in Curitiba, Brazil," Urban Management Program Working Paper Series No. 1 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., June 1993), p. 2.

140. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) and European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT), Urban Travel and Sustainable Development (OECD and ECMT, Paris, 1995), p. 88.

141. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), Environmental Policies for Cities in the 1990s (OECD, Paris, 1990), p. 31.

142. Op. cit. 134.

143. Ellen Brennan, "Mega-City Management and Innovation Strategies: Regional Views," in Mega-City Growth and the Future, Roland J. Fuchs et al., eds. (United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 1994), p. 238.

144. Op. cit. 106, pp. 36-37.

145. Ronald L. Doering et al., Planning for Sustainability: Towards Integrating Environmental Protection into Land-Use Planning (Royal Commission of the Future of the Toronto Waterfront, Toronto, 1991), pp. 67-68.

Table of Contents
Introduction  Section 1  Section 2   Section 3  Section 4  Section 5