World Resources 1996-97
(A joint publication by The World Resource Institute, The United
 Nations Environment Programme, The United Nations Development
 Programme, and the World Bank)
(Data edited by Dr. Róbinson Rojas)

Chapter 2. Urban Environment and Human Health

References and Notes

1. D.R. Phillips and Y. Verhasselt, eds., Health and Development (Routledge, New York, 1994).

2. Ellen Wratten, "Conceptualizing Urban Poverty," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 7, No. 1 (April 1995), p. 11.

3. National Research Council, The Epidemiological Transition: Policy and Planning Implications for Developing Countries (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 1.

4. Ibid., p. 2.

5. Op. cit. 3, p. 5.

6. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), Health Conditions in the Americas, Vol. 2 (PAHO, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 77.

7. Carolyn Stephens et al., Environment and Health in Developing Countries: An Analysis of Intra-Urban Differentials Using Existing Data (London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine in collaboration with Fundacao SEADE and Ghana Ministry of Health and Ministry of Environment, London, 1994), p. 52.

8. Medical Officer of Health, Annual Report: Cape Town, 1992 (Ministry of Health, Cape Town, South Africa, 1992), p. 10.

9. Op. cit. 7, p. 14.

10. Paulo Pinheiro, "Reflections on Urban Violence," The Urban Age, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1993), p. 3.

11. Arif Hasan, "Karachi and the Global Nature of Urban Violence," The Urban Age, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1993), pp. 1þ4.

12. Mademba Ndiaye, "Dakar: Youth Groups and the Slide Towards Violence," The Urban Age, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1993), p. 7.

13. Rodrigo Guerrero, "Cali's Innovative Approach to Urban Violence," The Urban Age, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1993), pp. 12þ13.

14. Jose Carvalho de Noronha, "Drug Markets and Urban Violence in Rio de Janeiro: A Call for Action," The Urban Age, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1993), p. 9.

15. Pan American Health Organization, "Violence: A Growing Public Health Problem in the Region," Epidemiological Bulletin, Vol. 11, No. 2 (1990) pp. 1þ7.

16. A. Rossi-Espagnet, G.B. Goldstein, and I. Tabibzadeh, "Urbanization and Health in Developing Countries: A Challenge for Health for All," World Health Statistics Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1991), p. 208.

17. Op. cit. 7.

18. Czech Statistical Office, Computerized records of deaths in the Czech Republic in 1993 (Czech Statistical Office, Prague, Czech Republic, 1994). Compiled by Martin Bobak, University College of London, 1995.

19. Op. cit. 7, p. 14.

20. Op. cit. 7, pp. 14, 52.

21. Op. cit. 18.

22. Op. cit. 7, pp. 14, 52.

23. Op. cit. 18.

24. Op. cit. 7.

25. Trudy Harpham and Carolyn Stephens, "Urbanization and Health in Developing Countries: From the Shadows into the Spotlight," Tropical Diseases Bulletin, Vol. 88, No. 8 (1991), pp. 1þ35.

26. Op. cit. 16, pp. 186þ247.

27. Jorge E. Hardoy, Sandy Cairncross, and David Satterthwaite, eds., The Poor Die Young: Housing and Health in Third World Cities (Earthscan, London, 1990), pp. 1þ309.

28. Trudy Harpham, Tim Lusty, and Patrick Vaughan, eds., In the Shadow of the City: Community Health and the Urban Poor (Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., 1988), pp. 1þ237.

29. World Health Organization (WHO), Commission on Health and Environment, Report of the Panel on Urbanization (WHO, Geneva, 1992), pp. 51þ54.

30. World Health Organization (WHO), The Urban Health Crisis: Strategies for Health for All in the Face of Rapid Urbanization (WHO, Geneva, 1993), pp. 1þ4.

31. The World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Health (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 40.

32. Op. cit. 29, p. 55.

33. Jane Pryer, "The Impact of Adult Ill-Health on Household Income and Nutrition in Khulna, Bangladesh," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1993), pp. 35þ49.

34. E. Drucker et al., "Childhood Tuberculosis in the Bronx, New York," Lancet, Vol. 343, No. 8911 (June 11, 1994), pp. 1482þ1485.

35. Megan Landon, "Intra-Urban Health Differentials in London," Master's thesis, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, 1994, pp. 1þ33.

36. Denise M. Dowd et al., "Pediatric Firearm Injuries, Kansas City, 1992: A Population-Based Study," Pediatrics, Vol. 94, No. 6 (December 1, 1994), p. 867.

37. Colin McCord and Harold Freeman, "Excess Mortality in Harlem," New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 322, No. 3 (January 18, 1990), pp. 173þ177.

38. Op. cit. 8, p. 13.

39. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Environment, Development and the Child (UNICEF, New York, 1992), pp. 19þ44.

40. Op. cit. 29, p. 67.

41. World Health Organization (WHO), The World Health Report 1995: Bridging the Gaps (WHO, Geneva, 1995), p. 9.

42. Op. cit. 29, p. 74.

43. David Bates, "The Effects of Air Pollution on Children," Environmental Health Perspectives , Vol. 103, Supplement 6 (September 1995), pp. 49þ51.

44. Ruth Etzel, "Indoor Air Pollution and Childhood Asthma: Effective Environmental Interventions," Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 103, Supplement 6 (September 1995), pp. 55þ57.

45. Floyd Malveaux and Sheryl Fletcher- Vincent, "Environmental Risk Factors of Childhood Asthma in Urban Centers," Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 103, Supplement 6 (September 1995), pp. 59þ61.

46. "Homicide Deaths by Age & Percent by Firearms, New York City, 1993," Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol. 72, No. 1 (Summer 1995), p. 152.

47. Op. cit. 15, pp. 2þ3.

48. Op. cit. 7, p. 54.

49. David Satterthwaite, "The Impact on Health of Urban Environments," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 5, No. 2 (October 1993), p. 107.

50. Ibid., pp. 106þ108.

51. Jacqueline Sims, ed., Women, Health, and Environment: An Anthology (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1994), pp. 24þ26.

52. Jorge Hardoy, Diana Mitlin, and David Satterthwaite, Environmental Problems in Third World Cities (Earthscan, London, 1992), pp. 50þ51.

53. Op. cit. 51, pp. 126þ135.

54. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 1995 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1995), p. 7.

55. Op. cit. 49, pp. 99þ100.

56. Paul Bairoch, Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present (Mansell Publishing, London, 1988).

57. Ann-Louise Shapiro, Housing the Poor of Paris, 1850þ1902 (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 1985).

58. Op. cit. 31, p. 90.

59. Gordon McGranahan, "Household Environmental Problems in Low-Income Cities: An Overview of Problems and Prospects for Improvement," Habitat International, Vol. 17, No. 2 (1993), pp. 105þ121.

60. Gustavo Arcia et al., "Environmental Health Assessment: A Case Study Conducted in the City of Quito and the County of Pedro Moncayo, Pichincha Province, Ecuador," Field Report No. 401 (Water and Sanitation for Health Project, Arlington, Virginia, 1993).

61. Stephen A. Esrey et al., "Health Benefits from Improvements in Water Supply and Sanitation: Survey and Analysis of the Literature on Selected Diseases," Technical Report No. 66 (Water and Sanitation for Health Project, Arlington, Virginia, 1990).

62. Gehan Sinnatamby, "Low Cost Sanitation," in The Poor Die Young: Housing and Health in Third World Cities, Jorge E. Hardoy, Sandy Cairncross, and David Satterthwaite, eds. (Earthscan, London, 1990), p. 133.

63. William Hogrewe, Steve D. Joyce, and Eduardo A. Perez, The Unique Challenges of Improving Peri-Urban Sanitation, Water and Sanitation for Health Technical Report No. 86 (U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., July 1993), pp. 44þ47.

64. Op. cit. 29, pp. 41þ43.

65. Op. cit. 29, pp. 41þ47.

66. Op. cit. 29, p. 42.

67. Op. cit. 29, p. 44.

68. Siobhan Hair, ed., Glasgow's Health: Women Count (Glasgow Healthy City Project, Glasgow, Scotland, 1994), pp. 8þ9.

69. Op. cit. 29, p. 47.

70. Stephen A. Esrey and Richard G.A. Feachem, Interventions for the Control of Diarrhoeal Diseases Among Young Children: Promotion of Food Hygiene, Document WHO/CDD/89.30 (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1989), pp. 1þ22.

71. Kare Molbak et al., "Bacterial Contamination of Stored Water and Stored Food: A Potential Source of Diarrhoeal Disease in West Africa," Epidemiology and Infection, Vol. 102, No. 2 (1989) pp. 309þ316.

72. Ibid.

73. Jo Lines et al., "Trends, Priorities and Policy Directions in the Control of Vector-Borne Diseases in Urban Environments," Health Policy and Planning, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1994), p. 113.

74. George Benneh et al., Environmental Problems and the Urban Household in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA)--Ghana (Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 1993), p. 75.

75. C.J. Schofield et al., "The Role of House Design in Limiting Vector-Borne Disease," in The Poor Die Young: Housing and Health in Third World Cities, Jorge E. Hardoy, Sandy Cairncross, and David Satterthwaite, eds. (Earthscan, London, 1990), p. 190.

76. Kirk R. Smith, "Fuel Combustion, Air Pollution Exposure, and Health: The Situation in Developing Countries," Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, Vol. 18 (1993), p. 529.

77. B.H. Chen et al., "Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries," World Health Statistics Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 3 (1990), pp. 128þ134.

78. Op. cit. 41.

79. Stephen Berman, "Epidemiology of Acute Respiratory Infections in Children of Developing Countries," Reviews of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 13, Supplement 6 (MayþJune 1991), pp. S454þS460.

80. Kirk R. Smith et al., "Air Pollution and the Energy Ladder in Asian Cities," Energy, Vol. 19, No. 5 (May 1, 1994), p. 587.

81. Anders Ellegard and Hans Egneus, "Health Effects of Charcoal and Woodfuel Use in Low-Income Households in Lusaka, Zambia," Energy, Environment and Development Series 14 (Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 1992), pp. 3þ4.

82. Kirk R. Smith and Yoncheng Liu, "Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries," in Epidemiology of Lung Cancer, Jonathan M. Samet, ed. (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1994), p. 154.

83. Ibid., p. 163.

84. Aletta P.S. Terblanche et al., "Exposure to Air Pollution from Transitional Household Fuels in a South African Population," Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environment Epidemiology, Vol. 3, Supplement 1 (1993), p. 150.

85. Op. cit. 49, p. 93.

86. World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme, World Resources 1992þ93 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1992), p. 195.

87. Richard N. Andrews et al., Guidelines for Improving Wastewater and Solid Waste Management, Water and Sanitation for Health Technical Report No. 88 (U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., August 1993), p. 1.

88. Carl Bartone et al., "Private Sector Participation in Municipal Solid Waste Service: Experiences in Latin America," Waste Management and Research, Vol. 9 (1991), p. 498.

89. Choon-Nam Ong, Jerry Jeyaratnam, and David Koh, "Factors Influencing the Assessment and Control of Occupational Hazards in Developing Countries," Environmental Research, Vol. 60, No. 1 (January 1, 1993), pp. 112þ123.

90. Op. cit. 52, p. 49.

91. Op. cit. 89, p. 114.

92. Dean Baker and Philip Landrigan, "Occupational Exposures and Human Health," in Critical Condition: Human Health and the Environment, Eric Chivian et al., eds. (MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993), pp. 71þ73.

93. Op. cit. 52, p. 49.

94. Op. cit. 52, p. 49.

95. Op. cit. 92, pp. 74þ77.

96. Op. cit. 52, pp. 49þ50.

97. Op. cit. 89, pp. 113þ114.

98. Op. cit. 89, pp. 116þ117.

99. Op. cit. 89, p. 114.

100. Op. cit. 52, p. 50.

101. Op. cit. 89, p. 115.

102. Op. cit. 52, p. 50.

103. Dietrich Schwela, "Public Health Implications of Urban Air Pollution in Developing Countries," paper presented at the 10th World Clean Air Congress, Erjos, Finland, May 28þJune 2, 1995, p. 1.

104. C. Arden Pope III et al., "Respiratory Health and PM-10 Pollution: A Daily Time Series Analysis," American Review of Respiratory Disease, Vol. 144, No. 3 (September 1, 1991), p. 668.

105. Douglas W. Dockery et al., "An Association Between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities," New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 329, No. 24 (December 9, 1993), p. 1753.

106. Ibid.

107. C. Arden Pope III et al., "Particulate Air Pollution as a Predictor of Mortality in a Prospective Study of U.S. Adults," American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Vol. 151, No. 3 (March 1995), p. 669þ674.

108. Ibid., p. 669.

109. Op. cit. 105, p. 1758.

110. Op. cit. 107, p. 672.

111. Philip J. Hilts, "Studies Say Soot Kills up to 60,000 in U.S. Each Year," New York Times (July 19, 1993), p. A1.

112. Marek Jakubowski, "Ambient Air Pollution and Health Effects," in Air Pollution in Central and Eastern Europe: Health and Public Policy (Management Sciences for Health, Boston, 1991).

113. Martin Bobak and Richard G.A. Feachem, "Air Pollution and Mortality in Central and Eastern Europe: An Estimate of the Impact," European Journal of Public Health, Vol. 5 (1995), pp. 82þ86.

114. Bart Ostro, "Estimating the Health Effects of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Application to Jakarta," Policy Research Working Paper No. 1301 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 47.

115. Bart Ostro, Chief, Air Toxicology and Epidemiology Unit, California Environmental Protection Agency, Berkeley, California, 1995 (personal communication).

116. Op. cit. 114.

117. Op. cit. 41, p. 35.

118. G.D. Jacobs, "Road Safety in the Developing World," in Health at the Cross-Roads: Urban Health and Transport Policy, T. Fletcher and T. McMichael, eds. (London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, in press), p. 1.

119. Ibid.

120. Op. cit. 118, p. 11.

121. Op. cit. 49, p. 93.

122. Peter Baghurst et al., "Environmental Exposure to Lead and Children's Intelligence at the Age of Seven Years," New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 327, No. 18 (1992), pp. 1279þ1284.

123. Herbert Needleman et al., "Deficits in Psychologic and Classroom Performance of Children with Elevated Dentine Lead Levels," New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 300, No. 13 (1979), pp. 689þ695.

124. U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S. AID), Office of Housing and Urban Programs, Ranking Environmental Health Risks in Bangkok, Thailand, Vol. 2, Technical Appendices (U.S. AID, Washington, D.C., December 1990), p. E-15.

125. Herbert Needleman et al., "The Long-Term Effects of Exposure to Low Doses of Lead in Childhood: An 11-Year Follow-Up Report," New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 322, No. 2 (1990), pp. 83þ88.

126. J.A. Staessen et al., "Hypertension Caused by Low-Level Lead Exposure: Myth or Fact?," Journal of Cardiovascular Risk (1994), pp. 87þ97.

127. James Pirkle et al., "The Relationship Between Blood Lead Levels and Blood Pressure and Its Cardiovascular Risk Implications," American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 121, No. 2 (1985), pp. 246þ258.

128. "The Declaration on Action for Environment and Health in Europe," adopted by the Second European Conference on Environment and Health, Helsinki, Finland, June 20þ22, 1994, as cited in Environmental Policy and Law, Vol. 25, No. 1þ2 (1995), p. 79.

129. Op. cit. 7, p. 57.

130. Claire N. Packer, Sarah Stewart-Brown, and Sarah E. Fowle, "Damp Housing and Adult Health: Results from a Lifestyle Study in Worcester, England," Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Vol. 48, No. 6 (1994), pp. 555þ559.

131. Op. cit. 35.

132. Richard Feachem et al., "Adult Mortality: Levels, Patterns and Causes," in The Health of Adults in the Developing World, Richard Feachem et al., eds. (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992).

133. D.C. Grossman et al., "Health Status of Urban American Indians and Alaska Natives: A Population-Based Study," Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 271, No. 11 (March 16, 1994), pp. 845þ850.

134. Richard G. Wilkinson, "The Epidemiological Transition: From Material Scarcity to Social Disadvantage?," Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 123, No. 4 (Fall 1994), pp. 67þ68.

135. Op. cit. 2, p. 14.

136. Op. cit. 134, pp. 71þ72.

137. Op. cit. 134, p. 69.

138. Op. cit. 7, pp. 10, 51.

139. These population figures differ from those reported in United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Urbanization Prospects: 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1994). As discussed in Chapter 1, "Cities and the Environment," city population figures can differ dramatically depending on the administrative boundaries used. In order to maintain the consistency of this health study, these population figures instead of those published by the U.N. are being used.

140. Op. cit. 7, p. 42.

141. Op. cit. 7, pp. 63þ66.

142. Op. cit. 16, pp. 186þ245.

143. Maggie Black, Mega-Slums: The Coming Sanitary Crisis (WaterAid, London, 1994), p. 18.

144. Carolyn Stephens and Trudy Harpham, Slum Improvement: Health Improvement? A Review of Issues in Health Planning for the Urban Poor of Developing Countries, Department of Public Health and Policy Publication No. 1 (London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, 1991).

Table of Contents
Introduction  Section 1  Section 2   Section 3   Section 4