World Resources 1996-1997

4. Transportation

References and Notes

1. Zmarak Shalizi and Jose C. Carbajo, "Transport-Related Air Pollution Strategies: What Lessons for Developing Countries?," discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., September 1994), p. 16.

2. Philip Sayeg et al., Assessment of Transportation Growth in Asia and Its Effects on Energy Use, the Environment, and Traffic Congestion: Case Study of Bangkok, Thailand (International Institute for Energy Conservation, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 23.

3. Ibid.

4. Paul Barter et al., "The Challenge of Southeast Asia's Rapid Motorisation: Kuala Lumpur, Jakarta, Surabaya and Manila in an International Perspective," paper presented at the Asian Studies Association of Australia Biennial Conference 1994, Environment, State, and Society in Asia: The Legacy of the Twentieth Century, hosted by the Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia, July 13þ16, 1994, p. 21.

5. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) and the European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT), Urban Travel and Sustainable Development (OECD and ECMT, Paris, 1995), p. 31.

6. The World Bank, Urban Transport (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1986), p. viii.

7. Asif Faiz and Surhid Gautam, "Motorization, Urbanization, and Air Pollution," discussion paper (The World Bank, Wash- ington, D.C., 1994), p. 8.

8. Michael P. Walsh, "Motor Vehicle Pollution Control: An Increasingly Critical Issue for Developing Countries," discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 7.

9. Op. cit. 7, p. 1.

10. The OECD member countries are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Mexico became a member in May 1994. Any discussion of OECD data prior to 1994 does not include data for Mexico.

11. American Automobile Manufacturers' Association (AAMA), World Motor Vehicle Data, 1995 Edition (AAMA, Detroit, 1995), pp. 16þ18.

12. Op. cit. 5, p. 35.

13. Op. cit. 11.

14. Op. cit. 5, p. 35.

15. Op. cit. 11.

16. The term "transition economies" lacks a formal definition, but is used here to include the successor states of the former Soviet Union (Armenia, Azerbaijan, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Georgia, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Latvia, the Republic of Lithuania, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation, the Republic of Tajikistan, the Republic of Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and the Republic of Uzbekistan) and the countries of Central Europe (Albania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Slovak Republic).

17. Yannis Karmokolias, Automotive Industry Trends and Prospects for Investment in Developing Countries, Discussion Paper No. 7 (International Finance Corporation, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 4.

18. John Lawson, Director, DRI/McGraw-Hill, London, 1994 (personal communication), as cited in O. Tunali, "Auto Production on the Rise," in Vital Signs 1995: The Trends That Are Shaping Our Future (Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C., 1995), p. 82.

19. Op. cit. 7, p. 7.

20. M.E. Omwenga, S. Obiero, and J. Malombe, "Nairobi Action Plan for Urban Mobility and Non-Motorized Transport," in Proceedings of the SSATP Seminar on Urban Mobility and Non-Motorized Transport in Sub-Saharan Africa (Africa Technical Department, The World Bank, Nairobi, Kenya, 1994), p. 4.

21. Secretaria Ejecutiva de la Comision de Planificacion de Inversiones en Infraestructura de Transporte (SECTRA), Encuesta Origen Destino de Viajes del Gran Santiago: 1991 (SECTRA, Santiago, Chile, 1991), Table 7, p. 20.

22. Op. cit. 7, p. 4.

23. Peter Midgley, Urban Transport in Asia: An Operational Agenda for the 1990s, World Bank Technical Paper No. 224 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 15.

24. Op. cit. 20, p. 2.

25. Op. cit. 6, p. 6.

26. Op. cit. 5, p. 36.

27. Op. cit. 5, p. 39.

28. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, The 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey: Summary of Travel Trends (Office of Highway Information Management, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 6.

29. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, The 1990 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey: Travel Behavior Issues in the 1990s (Office of Highway Information Management, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 11.

30. Michael Replogle, "Non-Motorized Vehicles in Asian Cities," World Bank Technical Paper No. 162, Asia Technical Department Series (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. xi.

31. U.S. Bureau of the Census, County and City Data Book: 1994 (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 650þ837.

32. Op. cit. 5, p. 29.

33. Op. cit. 5, p. 42.

34. United States (U.S.) Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), Saving Energy in U.S. Transportation: Summary, OTA-ETI-590 (OTA, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 6.

35. Ibid.

36. Anthony Downs, Stuck in Traffic: Coping With Peak-Hour Traffic Congestion (The Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C., and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1992), p. 101.

37. Op. cit. 5, p. 42.

38. United Nations (U.N.), Population Growth and Policies in Mega-Cities: Sao Paulo (U.N., New York, 1993), p. 10.

39. Peter Hall, "Can Cities Be Sustainable?," in The Human Face of the Urban Environment, Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development, Ismail Serageldin, Michael Cohen, and K.C. Sivaramakrishnan, eds. (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., September 19þ21, 1994), p. 34.

40. Mark Derr, "Beyond Efficiency," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 275, No. 1 (January 1995), p. 90.

41. Ibid., p. 91.

42. Janis D. Bernstein, "Land Use Considerations in Urban Environmental Management," Urban Management Programme Discussion Paper No. 12 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 26.

43. The World Bank, World Development Report 1994: Infrastructure for Development (Oxford University Press, New York, 1994), p. 14.

44. Ibid., p. 26.

45. Op. cit. 43, p. 27.

46. Op. cit. 23, p. 16.

47. Op. cit. 23, p. 16.

48. Op. cit. 5, p. 185.

49. Op. cit. 5, p. 188.

50. Op. cit. 4, p. 10.

51. World Energy Council, Energy for Tomorrow's World: The Realities, the Real Options, and the Agenda for Achievement (Kogan Page, London, and St. Martin's Press, New York, 1993), p. 51.

52. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook, 1995 (Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris, 1995), p. 248.

53. Op. cit. 5, p. 67.

54. Op. cit. 52, p. 245.

55. Op. cit. 52, pp. 252þ253.

56. Op. cit. 52, p. 245.

57. Op. cit. 51.

58. World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme, World Resources 1992þ93 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1992), p. 203.

59. S.B. Saville, "Automotive Options and Air Quality Management in Developing Countries," United Nations Environment Programme Industry and Environment, Vol. 16, No. 1þ2 (JanuaryþJune 1993), p. 32.

60. Op. cit. 7, p. 20.

61. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1993 (U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 2, 6, 46, 52.

62. Commission of the European Communities, The State of the Environment in the European Community: Overview, Vol. 3 (Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, Belgium, 1992), p. 15.

63. U.K. Department of the Environment, The UK Environment (U.K. Department of the Environment, London, 1992), p. 17.

64. Op. cit. 7, pp. 20þ21.

65. Asif Faiz, Kumares Sinha, and Surhid Gautam, "Air Pollution Characteristics and Trends," discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 25.

66. Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning and Environmental Defense Fund, The Global Dimensions of Lead Poisoning: An Initial Analysis (Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 26.

67. U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S.AID), "Comparing Environmental Health Risks in Cairo, Egypt: Vol. 1," draft paper (U.S.AID, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. III-8.

68. Op. cit. 66.

69. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Synthesis Report, July 29, 1995, draft (World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, 1995), p. 29.

70. Op. cit. 7, p. 19.

71. Op. cit. 69.

72. Op. cit. 52, p. 266.

73. Op. cit. 52, p. 266.

74. Op. cit. 7, p. 19.

75. Op. cit. 5, p. 66.

76. "Transport and the Environment: Facts and Figures," United Nations Environment Programme Industry and Environment, Vol. 16, No. 1þ2 (JanuaryþJune 1993), p. 5.

77. National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), Urban Environmental Maps: Delhi, Bombay, Vadodara, Ahmedabad (NIUA, Delhi, 1994), p. 2.27.

78. World Health Organization (WHO), The World Health Report 1995: Bridging the Gaps (WHO, Geneva, 1995), p. 19.

79. Alan Ross and Mukami Mwiraria, "Review of World Bank Experience in Road Safety," technical paper (Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., March 1992), p. 4.

80. The World Bank, India Transport Sector: Long Term Issues, Report No. 13192- IN (Infrastructure Operations Division, Country Department II, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995), p. iv.

81. Op. cit. 79, p. 1.

82. Op. cit. 5, p. 52.

83. John Pucher, "Modal Shift in Eastern Germany: Transportation Impacts of Political Change," Transportation, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1994), p. 15.

84. Martha N. Alt, Does Access to Jobs Affect Employment Rates and Incomes of Inner- City Residents? (Earth Island Institute, San Francisco, December 1991), p. 9.

85. Op. cit. 31, pp. 759, 764.

86. Robert H. Mast, ed., Detroit Lives (Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1994), p. 4.

87. Op. cit. 21, pp. 25, 37.

88. Ian Thomson, "The Transportation Systems of Latin American Cities: How They Might Better Serve the Needs of the Poor," in Enhancing the Management of Metropolitan Living Environments in Latin America, United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) Research Report Series No. 1 (UNCRD, Nagoya, Japan, 1994), p. 41.

89. Op. cit. 84.

90. Ian Thomson, "Improving Urban Transport for the Poor," in CEPAL Review 49 (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile, April 1993), p. 140.

91. T. Rwebangira and J. Nnuma, "Dar es Salaam Action Plan for Urban Mobility and Non- Motorized Transport," in Proceedings of the SSATP Seminar on Urban Mobility and Non- Motorized Transport in Sub-Saharan Africa (Africa Technical Department, The World Bank, Nairobi, Kenya, 1994), p. 4.

92. Op. cit. 5, pp. 13þ14.

93. Peter Newman, "Policies to Influence Urban Travel Demand," paper presented to the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) Project Group on Urban Travel and Sustainable Development (OECD, Paris, May 1992), pp. 19þ27.

94. Op. cit. 5, pp. 89þ91.

95. Peter Newman and Jeffrey Kenworthy, Cities and Automobile Dependence: An International Sourcebook (Gower Publishing Company, Aldershot, U.K., 1989), pp. 109þ122.

96. Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, Transport and the Environment (Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1994), p. 149.

97. William P. Anderson, Pavlos S. Kanaroglou, and Eric J. Miller, "Urban Form, Energy, and the Environment: A Review of Issues, Evidence, and Policy," draft paper (McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, 1994), p. 18.

98. Op. cit. 5, p. 99.

99. Kyung-Hwan Kim, "Controlled Development and Densification: Seoul, Korea," in The Human Face of the Urban Environment, Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development, Ismail Serageldin, Michael Cohen, and K.C. Sivaramakrishnan, eds. (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., September 19þ21, 1994), p. 247.

100. Op. cit. 97, p. 1.

101. Ralph Gakenheimer, " Land Use/Transportation Planning: New Possibilities for Developing and Developed Countries," Transportation Quarterly (Eno Transportation Foundation, Lansdowne, Virginia, April 1993), p. 322.

102. Jonas Rabinovitch, "Curitiba: Towards Sustainable Urban Development," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 4, No. 2 (October 1992), p. 66.

103. Douglass Lee, "Full Cost Pricing of Transportation" (National Transportation Systems Center, U.S. Department of Transpor- tation, Cambridge, Massachusetts, March 1995), p. 16.

104. United States (U.S.) Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Saving Energy in U.S. Transportation, OTA-ETI-589 (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 108.

105. Todd Litman, Transportation Cost Analysis (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 1995).

106. Op. cit. 103, pp. 25þ26.

107. Op. cit. 5, p. 158.

108. Op. cit. 6, pp. 8þ9.

109. International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), "Limiting Automobile Use Through Integrated Transpor- tation Demand Management: Republic of Singapore," Case Study No. 38 (ICLEI, Toronto, Canada, 1995), pp. 3þ5.

110. Op. cit. 5, p. 113.

111. Op. cit. 5, p. 118.

112. Pilar Pezoa, "Telepeaje, el Gran Cobrador," La Nacion (March 14, 1995, Santiago, Chile), p. 3.

113. Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC), "Bay Bridge Congestion Pricing Demonstration Project" (MTC, Oakland, California, January 1995).

114. Op. cit. 5, p. 113.

115. Clean Air Action Group, Characteristics of the Road Transport in Hungary and the Attack of Western Capital Interested in Motorization, Karoly Kiss, ed. (Talento Foundation, Budapest, Hungary, July 1992), pp. 84þ85.

116. David Throsby, "Ecologically Sustainable Development and the Transport Sector," United Nations Environment Programme Industry and Environment, Vol. 16, No. 1þ2 (JanuaryþJune 1993), p. 17.

117. Lee Schipper et al., "Fuel Prices, Automobile Fuel Economy, and Fuel Use for Land Travel, Preliminary Findings from an International Comparison," draft paper (University of California, Davis, California, 1994), p. 2.

118. The World Bank, World Development Report 1992: Development and the Environment (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), pp. 124þ125.

119. Michael Cameron, Efficiency and Fairness on the Road: Strategies for Unsnarling Traffic in Southern California (Environmental Defense Fund, Oakland, California, 1994), p. 29.

120. Donald C. Shoup and Richard W. Willson, "Commuting, Congestion and Pollution: The Employer-Paid Parking Connection," Working Paper No. 120 (University of California Transportation Center, Berkeley, California, 1992), p. i.

121. Ibid., p. 21.

122. Op. cit. 6, p. 11.

123. Mia Layne Birk and P. Christopher Zegras, Moving Toward Integrated Transport Planning: Energy, Environment, and Mobility in Four Asian Cities (International Institute for Energy Conservation, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 79.

124. Op. cit. 1, p. 13.

125. Op. cit. 123.

126. Op. cit. 93, p. 9.

127. Op. cit. 6, p. 15.

128. Op. cit. 6, p. 20.

129. Op. cit. 123, p. 68.

130. Op. cit. 6, Table A-6, p. 53.

131. Op. cit. 93, pp. 13þ14.

132. Op. cit. 5, p. 107.

133. Op. cit. 6, p. 17.

134. Jonas Rabinovitch and John Hoehn, "A Sustainable Urban Transportation System: the þSurface Metro' in Curitiba, Brazil," Working Paper No. 19 (Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1995), p. 1.

135. Mohammed Nisar and Ata M. Khan, "Transitway: An Innovation in Public Transportation," ITE Journal (Institute of Transport Engineers, Washington, D.C., July 1992), pp. 35þ36.

136. Asif Faiz et al., "Automotive Air Pollution: Issues and Options for Developing Countries," Working Paper No. 492 (Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., August 1990), p. 43.

137. Op. cit. 6, p. 34.

138. Op. cit. 123, p. 71.

139. Op. cit. 4.

140. Op. cit. 6, p. 31.

141. Op. cit. 6, p. 52.

142. Op. cit. 1.

143. Op. cit. 43, p. 58.

144. Jonas Rabinovitch, Senior Consultant, United Nations Development Programme, New York, 1995 (personal communication).

145. Stephen Hall, P. Christopher Zegras, and Henry Malbran Rojas, "Transportation and Energy in Santiago, Chile," Transport Policy , Vol. 1, No. 4 (1994), p. 239.

146. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), Provision of Travelway Space for Urban Public Transport in Developing Countries (Habitat, Nairobi, Kenya, 1993), p. 83.

147. Tunji Bolade, "Urban Transport in Lagos," The Urban Age, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Fall 1993), p. 7.

148. Op. cit. 5, pp. 104, 108.

149. Op. cit. 5, p. 87.

150. Op. cit. 23, p. 1.

151. Op. cit. 30, p. 42.

152. Op. cit. 30, p. xii.

153. Op. cit. 30, p. 37.

154. Op. cit. 30, p. 42.

155. Manuel Alepuz, "Bicycles Overtake Bus Travel in Havana," The Urban Age, Vol. 2, No. 1 (Fall 1993), p. 16.

156. Op. cit. 93, p. 3.

157. Op. cit. 5, pp. 109þ110.

158. Op. cit. 5, p. 110.

159. Todd Litman, Director, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 1995 (personal communication).

160. Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), Saving Energy in U.S. Transportation: Summary (OTA, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 26.

161. James J. MacKenzie, The Keys to the Car: Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles for the 21st Century (World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 24.

162. Op. cit. 52, p. 132.

163. Op. cit. 52, p. 284.

164. Op. cit. 52, p. 133.

165. Alcohol is 20 to 40 percent more efficient than gasoline depending on whether it is used in pure form or in a mixture with gasoline (gasohol). The use of diesel as a truck fuel also contributed to gains in efficiency.

166. Op. cit. 52, p. 133.

167. Michael P. Walsh, "Motor Vehicle Pollution Control: An Increasingly Critical Issue for Developing Countries," discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994).

168. Op. cit. 123, p. 94.

169. Op. cit. 161, p. 2.

170. Electric Transportation Coalition, "California Air Resources Board Proposes to Suspend ZEV Mandates until 2003 and to Institute a þCal/Big 7' Technology Development Partnership," memorandum from Kateri Callahan, Executive Director, Electric Transportation Coalition, to Board of Directors and Members, Washington, D.C., December 27, 1995, p. 1.

171. Op. cit. 59, p. 33.

172. Op. cit. 50, p. 33.

173. Op. cit. 136, p. 63.

174. Sujana Royat, "Toward Affordable and Environmentally Sound Urban Transport Management: The Case of Jakarta," draft paper presented at the International Symposium on Sustainable Urban Development Strategies in the 21st Century: Urban Transport and the Motorized Society (United Nations Center for Regional Development, Sagamihara, Japan, June 4þ8, 1994), p. 3.

175. Michael Walsh, Consultant, Virginia, July 1995 (personal communication).

176. Christopher S. Weaver, Asif Faiz, and Michael Walsh, "Emission Control Measures for In-Use Vehicles," discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., September 1994), pp. 28þ30.

177. International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), Manual on the Operational Guidelines for the Implementa tion of OPLAN Clean Air Metro Manila and ICLEI Site Visit to Quezon City, Philippines (ICLEI, Toronto, February 1995), n.p.

178. Op. cit. 176, p. 38.

179. Lit-Mian Chan and Christopher S. Weaver, Motorcycle Emission Standards and Emission Control Technology (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 1.

180. Ibid., p. 2.

181. Martin Wachs, "Learning from Los Angeles: Transport, Urban Form, and Air Quality," working paper (University of California Transportation Center, Berkeley, California, May 1993), p. 9.

182. Op. cit. 1.

183. Yoshitsugu Hayashi et al., "Urbanization, Motorization and the Environment Nexus: An International Comparative Study of London, Tokyo, Nagoya, and Bangkok" in Memoirs of the School of Engineering, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan, October 1994), p. 58.

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Introduction Section 1  Section 2  Section 3

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