World Resources 1996-97
(A joint publication by The World Resource Institute, The United
 Nations Environment Programme, The United Nations Development
 Programme, and the World Bank)
(Data edited by Dr. Róbinson Rojas)

3. Urban Impacts on Natural Resources

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), p. 103.

2. Ibid., p. 87.

3. Ian Douglas, "Human Settlements," in Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective, William B. Meyer and B.L. Turner II, eds. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 1994), p. 155.

4. Ibid., pp. 154-155.

5. Jorge E. Hardoy, Diana Mitlin, and David Satterthwaite, Environmental Problems in Third World Cities (Earthscan, London, 1992), p. 10.

6. Gordon McGranahan and Jacob Songsore, "Wealth, Health, and the Urban Household: Weighing Environmental Burdens in Accra, Jakarta, and Sao Paulo," Environment, Vol. 36, No. 6 (July/August 1994), pp. 4-8.

7. Op. cit. 5, p. 16.

8. Op. cit. 5, p. 33.

9. U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S. AID) Office of Environment and Urban Programs, The Role of the City in Environmental Management, 1994 edition (U.S. AID, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 3.

10. Ibid., p. 5.

11. Op. cit. 9.

12. Joseph Poracsky and Michael C. Houck, "The Metropolitan Portland Urban Natural Resource Program," in The Ecological City: Preserving and Restoring Urban Biodiversity, Rutherford H. Platt, Rowan A. Rowntree, and Pamela C. Muick, eds. (The University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, Massachusetts, 1994), pp. 251-268.

13. International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), "Cities for Climate Protection: An International Campaign to Reduce Urban Emissions of Greenhouse Gases," ICLEI paper (ICLEI, Toronto, 1993).

14. Development agencies are now beginning to sponsor studies on the impacts of urbanization on the surrounding natural resource base. See, for example, U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S. AID), The Impact of Urbanization on Natural Resources: Tetouan, Morocco (U.S. AID, Washington, D.C., 1992).

15. Op. cit. 5, n.p.

16. Rodney R. White, Urban Environmental Management: Environmental Change and Urban Design (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K., 1994).

17. Richard Stren, Rodney White, and Joseph Whitney, eds., Sustainable Cities: Urbanization and the Environment in International Perspective (Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1992).

18. William E. Rees, "Ecological Footprints and Appropriated Carrying Capacity: What Urban Economics Leaves Out," Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 4, No. 2 (October 1992), pp. 121-130.

19. Carl Folke, Jonas Larsson, and Julie Sweitzer, "Renewable Resource Appropriation by Cities," Beijer Discussion Paper Series No. 61 (Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Stockholm, Sweden, 1995).

20. P.M. Holligan and H. de Boois, Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ) Science Plan, International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP) Global Change Report No. 25 (IGBP, Stockholm, Sweden, 1993), as cited in John Pernetta and Danny Elder, Cross-Sectoral, Integrated Coastal Area Planning (CICAP): Guidelines and Principles for Coastal Area Development (World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland, 1993), p. 27.

21. Arnulf Grubler, "Technology," in Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective, William B. Meyer and B.L. Turner II, eds. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 1994), p. 323.

22. Alain Bertaud, "Overview," in The Human Face of the Urban Environment, Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development, Ismail Serageldin, Michael A. Cohen, and K.C. Sivaramakrishnan, eds. (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., September 19-21, 1994), p. 234.

23. Op. cit. 3, p. 162.

24. Op. cit. 1, p. 113.

25. Data from the 1992 National Resources Inventory, U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C., 1995.

26. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, Global Report on Human Settlements 1986 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., 1987), p. 130.

27. Celso N.E. Oliveira and Josef Leitmann, "Sao Paulo," Cities, Vol. 11, No. 1 (1994), p. 10.

28. United Nations (U.N.), Population Growth and Policies in Mega-Cities: Sao Paulo (U.N., New York, 1993), p. 16.

29. Ibid.

30. U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S. AID), "Urbanization in the Developing Countries," interim report to Congress (U.S. AID, Washington, D.C., 1988), as cited in Euisoon Shin et al., "Valuing the Economic Impacts of Environmental Problems: Asian Cities," Urban Management Program Discussion Paper, draft (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 3.

31. World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme, World Resources 1994þ95 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1994), p. 71.

32. Op. cit. 3, p. 162.

33. Donald W. Jones, "How Urbanization Affects Energy-Use in Developing Countries," Energy Policy, Vol. 19, No. 7 (September 1991), p. 622.

34. David E. Dowall and Giles Clark, "Making Urban Land Markets Work," draft paper prepared for the Urban Management Programme, The World Bank, as quoted in Janis D. Bernstein, "Land Use Considerations in Urban Environmental Management," Urban Management Programme Discussion Paper No. 12 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 25.

35. Janis D. Bernstein, "Land Use Considerations in Urban Environmental Management," Urban Management Programme Discussion Paper No. 12 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 26.

36. Ibid., p. 12.

37. Op. cit. 35, p. 17.

38. Op. cit. 35, p. 13.

39. Op. cit. 35.

40. Donald W. Field et al., Coastal Wetlands of the United States: An Accounting of a Valuable National Resource (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., 1991), pp. 1-13.

41. Op. cit. 31, Table 22.6, pp. 354-355.

42. Op. cit. 1, pp. 114-117, 143-150.

43. William H. Frey and Alden Speare, Jr., "The Revival of Metropolitan Population Growth in the United States: An Assessment of Findings from the 1990 Census," Population and Development Review, Vol. 18, No. 1 (March 1992), p. 135.

44. Dirk Bryant et al., "Coastlines at Risk: An Index of Potential Development- Related Threats to Coastal Ecosystems," World Resources Institute (WRI) Indicator Brief (WRI, Washington, D.C., 1995), p. 1.

45. Chia Lin Sien, Singapore's Urban Coastal Area: Strategies for Management, Association of Southeast Asian Nations/United States Coastal Resources Management Project Technical Publications Series 9 (The International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines, 1992), p. 17.

46. San Francisco Estuary Project Management Committee, San Francisco Estuary Project: Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (San Francisco Estuary Project, San Francisco, 1992), p. 52.

47. Matthew Auer, Urban Impacts on the Coastal Zones of Developing Countries: Problem Identification and Recommendations for Mitigations (U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 6.

48. University of Rhode Island Coastal Resources Center (URICRC)/U.S. Agency for International Development, Central America's Coasts: Profiles and an Agenda for Action (URICRC, Narragansett, Rhode Island, 1992), p. 7.

49. Op. cit. 47, pp. 6-7.

50. Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Program, Tangiers: Municipal Environmental Audit and Strategy (Commission of the European Communities/United Nations Development Programme/World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 2.

51. David Salvesen, Wetlands: Mitigating and Regulating Development Impacts, 2nd ed. (The Urban Land Institute, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 21.

52. United Nations (U.N.) Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, State of Urbanization in Asia and the Pacific, 1993 (U.N., New York, 1993), p. 5- 28.

53. United Nations (U.N.) Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific, 1990 (U.N., Bangkok, Thailand, 1992), p. 71.

54. Op. cit. 3, p. 162.

55. Centre for Science and Environment and the International Institute for Environment and Development, funded by Overseas Development Administration (ODA), Aligarh Environment Study (ODA, London, 1995), p. 64.

56. Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program, "The Environmental Profile of Jakarta 1990," draft paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 12.

57. Op. cit. 31, p. 171.

58. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), Energy in Developing Countries (OTA, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 11.

59. Ibid., p. 16.

60. Douglas F. Barnes et al., "Urban Energy Transitions, Poverty, and the Environment: Understanding the Role of the Urban Household Energy in Developing Countries," draft paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 15.

61. Richard H. Hosier, "Editor's Introduction: Urban Energy and the Environment in Africa," Energy Policy, Vol. 21, No. 5 (May 1993), p. 435.

62. Op. cit. 33, p. 621.

63. Josef Leitmann, "Energy-Environment Linkages in the Urban Sector," Urban Management Programme Paper No. 2 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., April 1991), p. 1.

64. Op. cit. 33, p. 621.

65. Op. cit. 33, p. 621.

66. Op. cit. 58, pp. 29-30.

67. Op. cit. 33, p. 621.

68. Jyoti Parikh and Vibhooti Shukla, "Urbanization, Energy Use and Greenhouse Effects in Economic Development: Results from a Cross-National Study of Developing Countries," Global Environmental Change, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1995), pp. 88-89.

69. Ralph Torrie, "Findings and Policy Implications from the Urban CO2 Reduction Project" (The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, Toronto, January 1993), p. 7.

70. Ibid.

71. Op. cit. 69.

72. Op. cit. 60, p. 85.

73. Op. cit. 60, p. 87.

74. B. Bowonder, S.S.R. Prasad, and N.V.M. Unni, "Dynamics of Fuelwood Prices in India," World Development, Vol. 16, No. 10 (1988), p. 1218. For greater detail on this study, see also World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme, World Resources 1994-95 (Oxford University Press, New York, 1994), p. 93.

75. Op. cit. 60, p. 91.

76. Josef Leitmann, "Urbanization and Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Input to the Post-UNCED Urban Axis," draft paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., February 1995), p. 16.

77. Op. cit. 60, p. 80.

78. Terrence G. Bensel, "Rural Woodfuel Production for Urban Markets: Problems and Opportunities in the Cebu Province, Philippines," Pacific and Asian Journal of Energy, Vol. 5, No. 1 (1994), p. 10.

79. Jesse C. Ribot, "Forestry Policy and Charcoal Production in Senegal," Energy Policy, Vol. 21, No. 5 (May 1993), p. 559.

80. Op. cit. 60, p. 99.

81. Op. cit. 79, p. 561.

82. Op. cit. 79.

83. Op. cit. 31, p. 8.

84. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) Group on Environmental Performance, Environmental Performance Review of Poland: Main Report (OECD, Paris, October 1994), p. 89.

85. Jerzy Borkiewicz et al., "Environmental Profile of Katowice," draft paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 10.

86. Op. cit. 84.

87. Op. cit. 85, p. 11.

88. Vaclav Smil, Global Ecology: Environmental Change and Social Flexibility (Routledge, London, 1993), p. 66.

89. Op. cit. 31, p. 346.

90. Yok-shiu F. Lee, "Urban Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing Countries," in Metropolitan Water Use Conflicts in Asia and the Pacific, James E. Nickum and K. William Easter, eds. (Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1994), p. 30.

91. Nonphysical losses, such as illegal connections or malfunctioning meters, can also account for a large share of public water losses.

92. Ian Douglas, Professor of Physical Geography, University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K., 1995 (personal communication).

93. Ismail Serageldin, "Water Supply, Sanitation, and Environmental Sustainability: The Financing Challenge," a keynote address to The Ministerial Conference on Drinking Water and Environmental Sanitation: Implementing Agenda 21 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., March 1994), p. 6.

94. National Research Council, Ground Water Quality Protection: State and Local Strategies (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1986), pp. 48-49.

95. Andre Potworowski, "A Taste of Salt," IDRC Reports, Vol. 18, No. 4 (October 1990), p. 10.

96. China National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA), Report on the State of the Environment in China 1994 (NEPA, Beijing, 1995), p. 6.

97. Ruangdej Srivardhana, "Water Use Conflicts in Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand," in Metropolitan Water Use Conflicts in Asia and the Pacific, James E. Nickum and K. William Easter, eds. (Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1994), p. 137.

98. Ibid.

99. Op. cit. 1, pp. 87, 89.

100. Carter Brandon and Ramesh Ramankutty, "Toward an Environmental Strategy for Asia," World Bank Discussion Paper No. 224 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 140.

101. Bureau of Territorial Planning and Regional Economics, China National Planning Commission, Planning Bureau, China National Environmental Protection Agency, and Chinese Academy of Geological Information, "Major Environmental Problems in China," Chinese Environment and Development, Vol. 4, No. 4 (Winter 1993þ1994), p. 28.

102. Euisoon Shin et al., "Valuing the Economic Impacts of Environmental Problems: Asian Cities," Urban Management Program Discussion Paper, draft (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 75.

103. Joan P. Baker et al., "Biological Effects of Changes in Surface Water Acid-Base Chemistry, NAPAP Report 13," in National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), Acid Deposition: State of Science and Technology, Vol. 2 (NAPAP, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 13-329.

104. Per Elvingson, "Acidification Looming as Industry Expands," Acid News, No. 2 (April 1995), p. 10.

105. Environmental Information Center, Energy Demand Forecast and Environmental Impact in China (Environmental Information Center, Tokyo, March 1994), p. 55.

106. National Research Council, Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 99.

107. Ibid.

108. David J. Roser and Alistair Gilmour, Acid Deposition and Related Air Pollution: Its Current Extent and Implications for Biological Conservation in Eastern Asia and the Western Pacific (World Wide Fund for Nature International, Gland, Switzerland, May 1995), p. 100.

109. Walter W. Heck, "Assessment of Crop Losses from Air Pollutants in the United States," in Air Pollution's Toll on Forests and Crops, James J. MacKenzie and Mohamed T. El-Ashry, eds. (Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut, 1989), p. 300.

110. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), "Urban Ozone and the Clean Air Act: Problems and Proposals for Change," staff paper (OTA, Washington, D.C., April 1988), pp. 45-47.

111. John L. Innes, Forest Health: Its Assessment and Status (CAB International, Oxon, U.K., 1993), p. 42.

112. William M. Ciesla and Edwin Donaubauer, "Decline and Dieback of Trees and Forests: A Global Overview," Forestry Paper No. 120 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1994), p. 61.

113. Op. cit. 108, pp. 57-59.

114. United Nations Environment Programme and the World Health Organization, Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World (Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U.K., 1992), p. 122.

115. Doug Gatlin, ed., Climate Change Policy Workbook for Local Leaders (The Climate Institute, Washington, D.C., 1995), pp. 9-10.

116. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), "IPCC Synthesis Report" (July 29, 1995 draft) (World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva, 1995), p. 29.

117. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook, 1995 (Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris, 1995), p. 266.

118. Asif Faiz and Surhid Gautam, "Motorization, Urbanization, and Air Pollution," discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 19.

119. Op. cit. 16, pp. 35-36.

120. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Environmental Data Report 1993þ94 (UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya, 1994), p. 329.

121. Op. cit. 53, p. 126.

122. Op. cit. 101, p. 34.

123. David Misitano, Edmundo Casillas, and Craig Haley, "Effects of Contaminated Sediments on Viability, Length, DNA, and Protein Content of Larval Surf Smelt, Hypomesus pretiosus, " Marine Environmental Research, Vol. 37 (1994), pp. 1-2.

124. Susanne Sami, Mohamed Faisal, and Robert Huggett, "Effects of Laboratory Exposure to Sediments Contaminated with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on the Hemocytes of the American Oyster Crassostrea virginica, " Marine Environment Research , Vol. 35 (1993), p. 131.

125. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and The Conservation Foundation, Getting at the Source: Strategies for Reducing Municipal Solid Waste ( WWF, Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 6.

126. Op. cit. 120, p. 336.

127. Op. cit. 125.

128. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Facing America's Trash: What Next for Municipal Solid Waste? (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1989), p. 226.

129. Michael Meybeck, Deborah Chapman, and Richard Helmer, eds., Global Freshwater Quality: A First Assessment (United Nations Environment Programme and World Health Organization, Geneva, 1989), p. 42.

130. National Research Council, Committee on Wastewater Management for Coastal Urban Areas, Managing Wastewater in Coastal Urban Areas (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1993), pp. 178, 261.

131. Ibid., pp. 177-179.

132. Op. cit. 130, pp. 177-179.

133. Susanne Baden et al., "Effects of Eutrophication on Benthic Communities Including Fish: Swedish West Coast," Ambio, Vol. 19, No. 3 (1990), pp. 113-122.

134. Charles Officer et al., "Chesapeake Bay Anoxia: Origin, Development, and Significance," Science, Vol. 223 (1984), pp. 26-27.

135. Gail Mackiernan, ed., "Dissolved Oxygen in the Chesapeake Bay: Processes and Effects," Maryland Sea Grant Publication No. UM-SG-TS-87-03 (University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 1987), pp. 139-145.

136. Thomas R. Fisher and Robert D. Doyle, "Nutrient Cycling in Chesapeake Bay," in Dissolved Oxygen in the Chesapeake Bay: Processes and Effects, Gail B. Mackiernan, ed. (Maryland Sea Grant College, College Park, Maryland, 1987), pp. 49-54.

137. Rutger Rosenberg et al., "Marine Eutrophication Case Studies in Sweden," Ambio, Vol. 19, No. 3 (1990), p. 107.

138. Scott W. Nixon, "Marine Eutrophication: A Growing International Problem," Ambio, Vol. 19, No. 3 (1990), p. 1.

139. Op. cit. 133.

140. Op. cit. 137, pp. 102-107.

141. Mati Kahru, Ulrich Horstmann, and Ove Rud, "Satellite Detection of Increased Cyanobacteria Blooms in the Baltic Sea: Natural Fluctuation or Ecosystem Change?," Ambio, Vol. 23, No. 8 (1994), p. 469.

142. Scott W. Nixon, "Coastal Marine Eutrophication: A Definition, Social Causes, and Future Concerns," Ophelia: International Journal of Marine Biology, Vol. 41 (March 1995), p. 214.

143. Op. cit. 138.

144. Op. cit. 130, pp. 23-26.

145. Op. cit. 53, p. 60.

146. Op. cit. 130, pp. 203-214.

147. John Briscoe, "When the Cup Is Half Full: Improving Water and Sanitation Services in the Developing World," Environment, Vol. 35, No. 4 (1993), p. 15.

148. Carl Bartone, "Water Quality and Urbanization in Latin America," Water International, Vol. 15 (1990), p. 3.

149. Op. cit. 147, p. 29.

150. Op. cit. 93, p. 9.

151. Op. cit. 130, pp. 32, 61-62.

152. Op. cit. 130, pp. 23þ26.

153. Op. cit. 53, p. 60.

154. Op. cit. 5, p. 116.

155. Op. cit. 102, p. 103.

156. Danilo J. Anton, Thirsty Cities: Urban Environments and Water Supply in Latin America (International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, 1993), p. 71.

157. Op. cit. 130, pp. 177, 346.

158. Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) in collaboration with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), How Wet Is a Wetland?: The Impacts of the Proposed Revisions to the Federal Wetlands Manual (EDF/WWF, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 74.

159. Robert Adler, "Reauthorizing the Clean Water Act: Looking to Tangible Values," Water Resources Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 5 (1994), p. 802.

160. Thomas O'Connor, Mussel Watch: Recent Trends in Coastal Environmental Quality (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 26.

161. Shinsuke Tanabe et al., "Persistent Organochlorines in Japanese Coastal Waters: An Introspective Summary from a Far East Developed Nation," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 7 (1989), pp. 344-351.

162. Op. cit. 53, pp. 56-57.

163. David Phillips and Shinsuke Tanabe, "Aquatic Pollution in the Far East," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 7 (1989), pp. 297, 300-302.

164. Op. cit. 52, p. 5-19.

165. Thomas Grigalunas and James Opaluch, "Managing Contaminated Marine Sediments," Marine Policy (October 1989), p. 321.

166. U.S. Agency for International Development (U.S. AID), "The Impact of Urbanization on Natural Resources: Tetouan, Morocco," working paper (U.S. AID, Washington, D.C., May 1992), p. 3-1.

167. Ibid., p. 3-3.

168. Stephen Olsen and Lynne Hale, "Coasts: the Ethical Dimension," People and the Planet , Vol. 3, No. 1 (1994), pp. 29-31.

169. Op. cit. 130, pp. 74-87.

170. Stephen Olsen, "Will Integrated Coastal Management Programs Be Sustainable: The Constituency Problem," Ocean and Coastal Management , Vol. 21 (1993), pp. 201-225.

171. The World Bank, The Noordwijk Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993), pp. 1-10.

172. Op. cit. 130, pp. 74-87.

173. Op. cit. 168.

174. Chesapeake Bay Program, The State of the Chesapeake Bay, 1995 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1995), p. i.

175. Chesapeake Regional Information Service, "Chesapeake Bay Program: A Citizen's Guide" (Chesapeake Regional Information Service, Richmond, Virginia, undated pamphlet).

176. Timothy Hennessey, "Governance and Adaptive Management for Estuarine Ecosystems: The Case of Chesapeake Bay," Coastal Management, Vol. 22 (1994), p. 123.

177. Op. cit. 175.

178. Op. cit. 174, pp. 5-19.

179. K. Price et al., "Nutrient Enrichment of Chesapeake Bay and Its Impact on the Habitat of Striped Bass: A Speculative Hypothesis," Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 114 (1985), pp. 97, 100-105.

180. Op. cit. 134, pp. 22-27.

181. Op. cit. 174, pp. 16-32.

182. Op. cit. 174, pp. 20-21, 31-42.

183. Karl Blankenship, "Blue Crab Survey Raises Questions About Stock's Health," Bay Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1 (March 1995), p. 1.

184. Op. cit. 176, pp. 123-138.

185. Op. cit. 174, pp. 14-19.

186. Op. cit. 176, pp. 123-138.

187. Op. cit. 176, p. 131.

188. Glen Eugster, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chesapeake Bay Program Office, Annapolis, Maryland, April 1995 (personal communication).

189. Op. cit. 174, pp. 1-39.

190. State of Maryland, Office of the Governor, Financing Alternatives for Maryland's Tributary Strategies: Innovative Financing Ideas for Restoring the Chesapeake Bay (State of Maryland, Annapolis, 1995), pp. 11-59.

191. Chesapeake Bay Program Office, Achieving the Chesapeake Bay Nutrient Goals: A Synthesis of Tributary Strategies for the Bay's Ten Watersheds (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Annapolis, Maryland, 1994), pp. 1-17.

192. Jenny Lynn Plummer, "Establishing Vegetative Buffers on Existing Lots: A Policy for Mitigating Impacts to Coastal Resources," Coastal Management, Vol. 22 (1994), pp. 427-430.

193. Chesapeake Bay Program, Chesapeake Bay Program: A Work in Progress (Chesapeake Bay Program Office, Annapolis, Maryland, 1994), p. 38.

194. Chesapeake Bay Program, Environmental Indicators: Measuring Our Progress (Chesapeake Bay Program Office, Annapolis, Maryland, 1995), p. 20.

195. Op. cit. 191, p. 8.

196. Op. cit. 174, pp. 22-23.

197. Op. cit. 174, pp. 31-32.

198. Op. cit. 174, pp. 10-11.

199. M. Elizabeth Gillelan, U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Chesapeake Bay Office, Annapolis, Maryland, March 1995 (personal communication).

200. Op. cit. 188.

201. Brian Morton, "Pollution of the Coastal Waters of Hong Kong," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 7 (1989), pp. 312-313.

202. Ibid., pp. 310-312.

203. Brian Morton, "Hong Kong's Coral Communities: Status, Threats and Management Plans," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 29, Nos. 1-3 (1994), p. 82.

204. Op. cit. 201, p. 312.

205. Op. cit. 201, p. 312.

206. Op. cit. 203, pp. 77-78.

207. S.Y. Lee, "Grave Threats to Seagrass," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 28, No. 4 (1994), p. 196.

208. Op. cit. 201, pp. 313, 316.

209. Op. cit. 53, p. 84.

210. Op. cit. 201, pp. 313-314.

211. David Phillips, "Trace Metals and Organochlorines in the Coastal Waters of Hong Kong," Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 20, No. 7 (1989), p. 326.

212. Op. cit. 201.

213. Op. cit. 201, pp. 313-316.

214. Brian Morton, Department of Ecology and Biodiversity, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, November 1995 (personal communication).

215. Op. cit. 53, p. 85.

216. Brian Morton, "Hong Kong," Chapter 14 in Coastal Management in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues and Approaches, Kenji Hotta and Ian M. Dutton, eds. (Japan International Marine Science and Technology Federation, Tokyo, 1995), p. 204.

217. Op. cit. 203, p. 80.

218. Op. cit. 214.

219. Op. cit. 214.

220. Op. cit. 214.

221. Op. cit. 203, pp. 80-83.

222. Op. cit. 216, pp. 204-205.

223. Op. cit. 214.

Table of Contents
Introduction   Section 1  Section 2   Section 3  Section 4