UNCTAD Trade and Development Reports
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Trade and Development Report 2012
- Policies for Inclusive and Balanced Growth
- 12 September 2012
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Explanatory notes - Abbreviations - OVERVIEW - Contents
Chapter I
CURRENT TRENDS AND CHALLENGES IN THE WORLD ECONOMY
A. Recent trends in the world economy
1. Global growth
2. International trade
3. Commodity markets
B. Economic challenges for the world economy and policy responses
1. The difficult path towards strong and balanced growth
2. The scope for monetary and fiscal policies
3. Structural reforms are not a substitute for supportive macroeconomic policies
Notes
References
Chapter II
INCOME INEQUALITY: THE MAIN ISSUES
A. Inequality of incomes and market mechanisms
B. Inequality and economic theory
C. Some empirical evidence on inequality, employment and growth
D. Looking ahead
Notes
References
Chapter III
EVOLUTION OF INCOME INEQUALITY:
DIFFERENT TIME PERSPECTIVES AND DIMENSIONS
A. Introduction
B. Long-term trends in inequality within countries
1. Functional income distribution
2. The share of top incomes in total income
3. Personal income distribution
C. A closer look at trends in income inequality since 1980
1. Functional income distribution
2. Personal income distribution
3. Inequality and poverty
D. Global income inequality
E. Other dimensions of inequality
1. Wealth distribution
2. Gender inequality
3. Unequal access to education
Notes
References
Chapter IV
CHANGES IN GLOBALIZATION AND TECHNOLOGY
AND THEIR IMPACTS ON NATIONAL INCOME INEQUALITY
A. Introduction
B. Trade, technology and shifts in production structure
1. The trade-inequality debate of the early 1990s
2. The “new” trade-inequality debate
C. Financial integration of developing and transition economies
D. Conclusions
Notes
References
Chapter V
THE ROLE OF FISCAL POLICY IN INCOME DISTRIBUTION
A. Introduction
B. Fiscal policies and inequality
1. Public finances and income distribution
2. Tax reforms in developed countries
3. Public revenues in developing countries and transition economies
4. Fiscal space and public expenditure
5. Influencing income distribution through public spending
C. Policy recommendations
1. Learning from experience
2. Taxation, distribution and growth
3. Fiscal space in developing countries
4. Public spending to reduce inequality
Notes
References
Chapter VI
THE ECONOMICS AND POLITICS OF INEQUALITY RECONSIDERED
A. Introduction
B. The interaction between unemployment and the wage share
1. The traditional approach: employment creation through wage restraint
2. The alternative approach: wage growth as the key determinant of demand growth
C. Wage flexibility at the firm level and the dynamics of a market economy
D. Economic policy and institution-building to reduce inequality
1. The participatory society and dynamic adjustment
2. Macroeconomic policies and institutional arrangements
3. Specific aspects of incomes and employment policies in developing countries
4. Legal minimum wages
5. The international framework
E. Conclusions
Notes
References
List of tables
1.1 World output growth, 2004–2012
1.2 Export and import volumes of goods, selected regions and countries, 2008–2011
1.3 World primary commodity prices, 2006–2012
3.1 Share of wages in GDP in selected countries, 1920–2010
3.2 Changes in inequality by region, 1980–201
3.3 Proportion of people living below the poverty line, selected country groups, 1981–2008
3.4 Decomposition of world income inequality, 1988–2008
3.5 Wealth and income concentration in selected countries
3.6 Percentage of women in ownership of firms, top management and full-time
employment, by region
3.7 Distribution of employment by gender and occupation groups, 2008
3.8 Gross secondary education enrolment ratio, 1971–2010
5.1 Fiscal revenue indicators, developed countries, 1981–2010
5.2 Fiscal revenue indicators, selected regions, 1991–2010
5.3 Fiscal expenditure, selected regions and country groups, 1991–2010
List of boxes
1.1 Trade imbalances and the euro zone crisis
2.1 Inequality, savings and investment
6.1 Wage determination and marginal productivity
6.2 Wage adjustment in response to an import price shock
6.3 Labour market flexibility, Germany’s relative success and the euro crisis
List of Charts
1.1 Regional contributions to world GDP growth, 1970–2012
1.2 World trade by volume, January 2000–April 2012
1.3 Net barter terms of trade, 2000–2011
1.4 Monthly commodity price indices by commodity group, Jan. 2002–May 2012
1.5 Real GDP growth and contributions of net exports and domestic demand,
selected country groups, 2006–2012
1.6 Current-account balances, selected countries and country groups, 2005–2012
1.7 Public debt-to-GDP ratio, 1980–2011
3.1 Share of income of the top 1 per cent in total income in selected countries, 1915–2010
3.2 Gini coefficient by region, 1890–2000
3.3 Functional income distribution in selected countries, 1980–2010
3.4 Gini coefficients for gross and net income, selected regions, 1980–2010
3.5 Income inequality between countries and individuals, 1963–2009
3.6 Wealth and income Gini coefficients in selected countries
3.7 Wage gap between men and women, 1985–2010
4.1 Ratios of average hourly wages at various percentiles of the distribution
in the United States, 1974–2008
4.2 Change in employment shares by occupation level in the United States and
selected countries in the EU, 1993–2006
4.3 Wages in manufacturing of selected countries during economic catch-up
relative to the United States
4.4 Merchandise imports of selected countries and country groups from low-wage
economies, by product category, 1995–2010
4.5 Foreign direct investment, employment in manufacturing and income inequality,
selected countries, 1995–2010
4.6 Growth in employment, value added and productivity, by sector in the United States
4.7 Terms of trade and income inequality, selected countries, 2000–2010
4.8 Real net private capital inflows and real effective exchange rate in emerging
economies, 1995–2010
4.9 Composition of external assets and liabilities in emerging economies, 1980–2010
4.10 Stock of portfolio equity liabilities and equity market indices, selected emerging
economies, 1990–2010
5.1 Top marginal income tax rates in selected OECD countries, 1975–1979 and 2004–2008
5.2 Change in top marginal income tax rate, per capita GDP growth and change in top
1 per cent income share in selected OECD countries from 1975–1979 to 2004–2008
5.3 Statutory corporate income tax rates and gross fixed capital formation in selected
developed countries, 1982–2005
6.1 Employee compensation and unemployment rate in developed countries, 1970–2010
6.2 Growth of employment and real GDP in selected countries, 1981–2011
6.3 Growth of employment and gross fixed capital formation in selected countries, 1981–2011
6.4 Annual growth rates of unit labour costs and inflation
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UNCTAD investment brief, No. 1,
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Transport Newsletter, No. 34,
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